Does the Second Admendment need alteration Research Paper

Does the Second Admendment need alteration - Research Paper Example In spite of their effectiveness, these documents have numerous flaws. The second amendment and its ensuing argument, is an example of a flaw, divides the country into two distinct camps (Carlson 2). This essay will advocate for repeal of the law to state that each household should have a firearm. Carlson asserts that the right for individuals in the U.S to bear arms has been the been the focus of various political debates (2). The debates revolve around the infringement of gun ownership by the U.S government. By restricting the possession of firearms, will the government be servicing its own selfish interests or is it simply being mindful about its citizen’s welfare. Do the government and its bodies, such as the senate, have the right to re-interpret this law to fit modern times (Gerber 4). This is considering the difference in time from when the law was first enacted. Another question regards the effects that would arise from this re-interpretation. Would this new and modified law help U.S. citizens or simply worsen the current situation? The crime rates in the U.S. are not dropping anytime soon, and the right to bear arms is not a cause of this trend (Charles 13). The individuals who bear arms are not the perpetrators of crime. The thieves, murderers and other villains possess their firearms illegally. For this reason, should the government concentrate on the second amendment or the laws on purchasing? In my opinion, the latter needs to be stricter to curb the prevalence of crime perpetrated by illegal firearms. The aforementioned fact of illegal firearms perpetrating crimes leads to the central argument of this essay. Charles continues to state that it should be universally established that families should be inherently granted the right to bear arms (14). Bearing arms assists families in protecting themselves from rapists, thieves and other thugs that

Comparing of two corpora from a linguistic journal and a transcribed Essay

Comparing of two corpora from a linguistic journal and a transcribed interview - Essay Example This study compared two differing corpora, each 300 words in length, for four different linguistic variables. The corpora were extracted from a linguistic journal and a transcribed interview and the linguistic variables were number of sentences, average length of sentences, number and type of dependent clauses and number of contractions. Results supported Hypotheses 1 and 4, wherein more and shorter sentences and more contractions were found in the transcribed interview corpus than in the linguistic journal extract. The findings did not support Hypothesis 2 because even though the linguistic extract provided less and longer sentences it was the interview extract that provided more dependent clauses within the 300 words. Hypothesis 3 was only partly supported because the linguistic journal corpus did not provide evidence of more dependent noun clauses than other types of dependent clauses.

Lloyds Tsb A Retail Bank In The Uk Marketing Essay

Lloyds Tsb A Retail Bank In The Uk Marketing Essay Lloyds TSB is a retail bank in the U Kingdom. It was started in year 1995 by the merger of Lloyds Bank. Lloyds TSB has an wide network of branches and cash machines across United Kingdom and offers 24-hour telephone and online banking services. Now it has 16 million customers, and business accounts. Lloyds TSB Vision: The vision Lloyds TSB is to be the one of best financial services bank in the UK. Lloyds TSB is well known for the customer relationships. Lloyds TSB is mainly focused on the customer satisfaction and their interests better than any other competitors. Lloyds TSB Mission Statement: To make Lloyds TSB the best company in the financial services industry a great place for staff to work and a great place for customers to do business. (Sir Win Bischoff, Chairman) Lloyds TSB Goals: Growing Lloyds TSB as the Number one position in the banking sector. Attracting the customers with new policys. Increasing the customer of the bank. Lloyds TSB Objectives: Developing a good customer relationship between the customers. Increase customer service in order to meet customer needs. Improving services and quality according to the competitors. Lloyds TSB Strategies in year 2005: Strategy is a broad based formula for how business is going to compete, what its goals should be and what polices will be needed to carry out those goals. The essence of formulating competitive strategy is relating a company to its environment. In 2003 they developed customer relationship programmes to deliver higher revenues per customer in the retail market and according to their press releases this strategy seems to be working Our customer satisfaction scores hit record highs in 2005, again reflecting the improvement programmes established over the last couple of years, and we will continue to drive further improvements as we seek to differentiate our service performance against that of our Competitors.  [1]   Lloyds TSB say they are committed to achieving top performance in both effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness is the ability to recruit, develop and retain loyal customers who think of us first for their next financial services need. Efficiency is the ability to provide service and sales at a lower cost so that we can give our customers better value. We believe that in order to achieve our goal we must be customer rather than product centric.  [2]   Target customer current account recruitment increased by 28 per cent, compared with 2004.  [3]   Producing new offers to the customers. Providing new services and adding quality to the existing products. In order to compete with the existing competitors Lloyds TSB providing internet banking service in order to become a high performance organisation Lloyds TSB uses Flawless execution that mainly develops relationships with customers. Identifying the customer needs and solving their problems by using advanced technologies. Critical Evaluation Strategic Analysis: Melville, N. et al. (2004) defined the value of information technology in the organizations as the organizational performance impacts of information technology at both the intermediate process level and the organization-wide level, and comprising both efficiency impacts and competitive impacts. If the information technology has been utilized efficiently. It will add value to the organization itself. Brooks, B (2003) suggested that adding value to the business meant extending the ranger of products; reducing the cost; improving the quality of the services and products and so on. There are a lot of ways for the organizations to choose to add value for themselves; but it seems that IT strategy has been widely used in the modern business environment. The strategy plan established for Lloyds TSB has been created after undertaking a through serious issues about the business and the environmental. The strategic plan that implemented by the organisation can move forward with a sense of direction, purpose and urgency. The strategic plan implemented by the TSB exists to achieve some degree of sustainable competitive advantage. Strategic planning as suggested by (Robson 1997) highlights that strategic planning turns a organisations vision into concrete achievable. It describes the initiatives that will achieve the vision in ways deemed consistent with the organisation, its assumed market and the competitive environment. Strategy plan plays an important in developing the organisation and also it involve in the creation of new and lasting competitive advantages and the development of new products and services. It is important whilst strategy making that innovation and dynamism is concurrently endeavoured for as suggested by (Porter 1987) The strategy plan Lloyds TSB is to achieve their vision followed by their mission and goals. The goals specifies how the organisation will get back in to the market leadership. The vision of the organisation will improve the innovation and dynamic approaches towards the market. All the strategies that are implemented by the Lloyds TSB are to tackle the complex situations. How ever all these strategies that developed by the Lloyds TSB are to remain the competition in the financial market. Appendix 1 Table 1 ROE and P/E of UK retail Banks: Recent Return on Equity (ROE) and Price Earnings Ratio (P/E) figures comparing Lloyds against RBS and two of the other top 4 UK retail banks shows: U.K. Bank TTM Ratios ROE P/E* Lloyds TSB Group plc 22.1 13.9 HSBC Holdings plc (NYSE: HBC) 15.9 16.9 Barclays plc (NYSE: BCS) 18.8 14.6 Royal Bank of Scotland 13.0 12.4 *Data provided by Capital IQ, a division of Standard Poors. P/E numbers reported on a normalized basis to adjust for the impact of extraordinary items  [4]   Table 2 CAPM of top 5 UK Retail Banks: Bank Beta Rf Rm CAPM Equity Market Value HBOS 0.9355 4.43% 7.5% 7.30%  £38.88bn HSBC 0.6485 4.43% 7.5% 6.42%  £111.82bn Lloyds TSB 0.9694 4.43% 7.5% 7.40%  £30.14bn Barclays 1.1525 4.43% 7.5% 7.97%  £43.23bn Alliance Leicester 0.6556 4.43% 7.5% 6.44%  £4.92bn RBS 0.8669 4.43% 7.5% 7.09%  £59.07bn Rf = 4.43% currently for Treasury Bills, Rm = 7.5% currently for FTSE 100 return. I have chosen to use the FTSE 100 rate of return because all 6 companies are listed as being in the top ten largest listed UK companies by equity market value and should therefore give a more accurate CAPM figure. Table 3 Earnings Per Share (EPS) in pence: Bank 2004 2003 2002 2001 % Change HBOS 78.1 63.6 50.6 46.4 68.3% HSBC 0.84 0.67 0.59 0.76 10.53% Lloyds TSB 43.3 58.3 32 45.2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢4.39% Barclays 51.2 42.3 33.7 36.8 39.13% Alliance Leicester 95.8 79 68 57 68.07% RBS 138 79 68.4 67.6 104.14% Appendix 2 Figure 1 FTSE 100 V Financial Services over past 5 Years: 5 Figure 2 New companies by business sector: 6 Figure 3 Kaplan and Nortons Balanced Scorecard: 7 Appendix 3 Figure 4 UK Premium and Packaged Accounts Market Share: 8 Figure 5 UK Debit Card Market Share 2005: 9 Figure 6 UK Credit Card Market Share 2005: 10 Figure 7 UK top 5 Secured Personal Loan Providers 2005: 11 Figure 8 UK Top 9 Unsecured Personal Loan Providers 2005: 12 Information system in Lloyds TSB: Information System in different departments: Transaction Processing System: In every banking sector we need store the data , modify the data, and we retrieve the data of the transactions. For this we use TPS (Transaction processing System) it generates and retrieve the transaction of organization . Customer Identification: In every banking sector we need the customer authentication (customer identification) ,in Lloyds TSB they use NADRA which is attached with viruses .when the enter the details of him it directly enter into the NADRA to verify the customer ID. So that the Management will identify the original ID cards. By this we totally control the fake accounts holders. When the client enter the details of the account it will directly send to the NADRA their the account details are checked with the bank details if it is correct then the account is opened other wise it is closed. Input (ID #) Viruses Management HUB NADRA (customer identification) Employees Record : In Lloyds TSB the Management will maintain exact details of the employees .they use information system in every where they introduced BIO-metric system in every banks to maintain the exact details of the employee this will increase the efficiency of an employee.Every Lloyds TSB employee should login with the biometric device so that the details of the employee is stored HUB. And logout on leaving this should be done only by tracing with their thumb impressions on biometric device. Employee Job Login Biometric Device HUB Employee Job Logout Real time Banking: In the present situation time plays a major role If any customer want to transfer the funds to another account immediately he should not be waste the time. For that the Lloyds TSB maintain real time banking with that real time banking the customer can transfer their funds to any other accounts with in seconds. Here the TCB maintains the LN . The new transition is send to the LN. Through LN it will send to the HUB where the updates are made and the updates will done . In the present scenario no client is ready to waste their time so, the TSB offering a fast real time online banking system. New Transactions, Updates LN HUB Updated Online Complains: Customers are the main visitors of the banking sector. Lloyds TSB allows the customer to send their complains online. If any customer is not satisfied with the TSB, the TSB offering a privilege to the customer so that they can send online complains. what the customer need to do is he has to fill the online complain form which is send to the TPS, that is linked with the Management their the management can identify the problem and it is send to concerned department their it is resolved. And the solution is send back to the customer. It all happen with massive using of information . Customer Queries Customer Service TPS Identify Problem Send to Concerned Dept. Advices: The information system is very much used in the Lloyds TSB, TSB uses record of all the customers in the server and it will send messages regularly to the customers when they had transactions .If any customer is short off balance then the system automatically alert the massege to the customer and as well as management so that the management can take manual action like send letter or mail to the customer. Customer Service TPS Account Alert Management HUB Advices Send to Customer Account Opening: To open the account the Lloyds TSB maintain the TPS which maintain the hub contains of all the data of an account holder and the information about the account holder.Customer has to give his personal details such as passport number, NI number, Date of birth etc. What ever the information given by the customer the information is send to viruses and Account department .so, that the details are send to the customer service TPS and HUB . then customer account is opened Applicant Identification Viruses A/C Dept. Customer Service TPS HUB New A/C Opened Online Activity Online banking is done with in the same bank or different organization. Suppose a customer need to transfer the funds to another customer then the customer as to enter branch code, sort code and account number and the amount you need to transfer. Then this information is send to the server (HUB), Then the information is checked in the server then the fund is transferred to the branch Customer Customer Service TPS HUB A/C Dept Fund Trnsfr to Concerned Branch ATM Card After registering in to the account the customer details are stored in the hub. When the customer requested for the ATM the details of customer is checked in the HUB and then the card is issued. Lloyds TSB will provide many ATM machines for easy access of the customer. It just asks the ATM card then after it we have to enter the Pin number the pin number is send to the HUB their the pin is checked with the card and the details then money is taken from the machine. Applicant Identification Virses A/C Dept. Customer Service TPS HUB New A/C Opened ATM Issued MANGEMENT OVERVIEW: How the Management In Lloyds TSB is divided we can see Firstly we have an CEO,( Sir Win Bischoff, Chairman) and to the CEO we have an executive directors and all the executive directors are maintains regional managers, all these regional managers will maintains the branch managers under the branch managers we can see the field offecers CEO Executive Directors Field officer employees Regional Managers Regional Managers Regional Managers Branch Managers Branch Managers Branch Managers Branch Managers Branch Managers Branch Managers Business process models: Value Chain Model Secondary Activities Inbound logistics Services Operations Sales Organization value Chain Computerized Ordering System Technology Development HRM Workforce Planning System Administration and Management R D System Primary Activities Outbound logistics Analysis of Lloyds TSB with Value chain : We are considering bank sector as an organisation in this sector we commonly see the operations a lot because this is banking sector we need more consideration on the operations .We have less inbound logistics. We mainly use software operations more. The information system is used more in the banking sector. The banking sector uses Online banking, ATM machines which we use information system . Inbound logistics : The inbound logistics specify the building area, where the business going to start? what are the safety measures we have to take? What is cost of the area we selected? These all come under Inbound Logistics. Operations: The banking sector has to do much part with the operations. Information system is highly used in the operation part. Everything the data of the customer has to enter in the HUB.so, the IS is much used in the operation part Outbound Logistics: the outbound logistics include the output of the bank. Here the bank sector include the their customer as their output . Sales: every organisation wants to improve their sales. The Lloyds TSB increases their sales by adding the customers to them. For that the TSB follows many strategies , With using the advanced technologys the Lloyds TSB is good at attracting their customers. Services: The services is the part of every organisation .Lloyds TSB give more benefits TSB maintain a good relation ship between the customers .It will give extra benefits to the customer It offers different card s like silver, gold, platinum etc . It also give incurrence like mobile incurrence, car break down etc. Porters Five Force Model Analysis of Lloyds TSB with Porters 5 force Model : Threat of New Entrants: Orders from the Government (Financial Services Authority The British Bankers Association) The organisations that which invest high capital investment, are some of the threats When the market is good then there is a possible to enter the new entrants . As can be seen above, the entry barriers in place for the financial services industry are low. When entry barriers are low, new firms can freely enter the industry, which increase rivalry and depletes profits as suggested by (Robson, 1997) Bargaining Power of Customer: Missing the customer relationship. (Customers are seen to bank with several banks, hold different financial products with different financial service providers.) Customers can change their account depending on the banks what they offer interest rate. (Customers are no longer tied into accounts or agreements for a long period of time) Maximum of the customers are very Money minded. (This is through the availability of interest free credit cards/reduced rate loans/competitive savings rates) The Customers can easily get the account details and the bank statements (Information technology has enabled this; loan rates/ credit cards can be searched and compared online offering the best product to the customer with little effort) Customers want to get more service from the bank. Bargaining Power of Supplier: The interest rate is announced by the Bank Of England Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) present moment the interest rates are on hold at 4%. The final rate influence financial services products. Substitute Products: We see Product differential is every where in the financial services industry Examples of product differentiated can be seen below: Increased number of Credit Unions in the form of credit cards/store cards. An example is here, Marks Spencer who now offer a store card and a credit card to customers along with reduced personal loan rate. The above model, as suggested by (Porter, 1985) largely determined the type and level of competition within the financial services industry. Analysis of Lloyds TSB with SWOT analysis : A SWOT analysis is used to analysis the internal and external environments of the organisation. In case of Lloyds TSB. Com. We can identify the Lloyds TSB strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. It is suggested by (Harrison, St John 1998) that the results from this situation analysis may form the basis for developing missions, goals and strategies. Figure below highlights the SWOT Matrix SWOT Analysis Internal Factors Strengths Opportunities Weaknesses Opportunities Weaknesses Strengths Threats Threats External Factors Figure SWOT Matrix Strengths: Lloyds TSB is the Europes 4th largest retail bank Lloyds TSB is Britains 8th largest banking sector based on market capitalisation Lloyds TSB has very strong branch network of 2300 Lloyds TSB had more than 16 million customers Lloyds TSB has good brand recognition Lloyds TSB will Provide Mortgages, Insurances, investments and it provides a full range of financial service Lloyds TSB will Provide a full functional internet banking for both personal customers and business customers Lloyds TSB will update the customers with new schemes through :telephony/internet Lloyds TSB New changes has been made in the online banking, that as been expected by customers rapidly. Opportunities: We can increase the online banking customers We can increase the number of premier customers By increasing the amount of wholesale market Increasing the brand recognition . Managing more number of customers in the financial affairs Cross sell (As a range of products exist therefore take advantage of the strong brand name) Example: Foreign Currency combination with Travel Insurance Mortgages combination with Life Insurance Home Insurance combination with Home Utilities Weaknesses: Not maintaining stable Interest rates/this is due to inflation base rate Cross publicity related to the Scottish Widows(Part of LTSB) Policys Due to problems in security, privacy and reliability the internet banking updates every time. Threats: Entering the new banks specifying only internet banking(unconventional banks) The new retail marketing industries have entering in to the banking sector such as Sainsburys supermarket, Marks Spencer, Tesco Supermarket. Missing the customer loyalty Financial banking sector industry is too slow down for the next two years, this will have effect on Lloyds TSB The significance of the SWOT analysis undertaken above is to use the existing business strengths to exploit opportunities, to create new opportunities, to counteract threats and repair any weaknesses as suggested by (Robson 1997) CONCLUSION A management information system is a system or process that provides the information necessary to manage an organization effectively(Richard 1895). This eassy discuses all the activities that the Management Information System perform in our selected organization Lloyds TSB Bank. SUGGESTION Lloyds TSB is using the Information System very efficiently and increasing , but still there are many things that should be improved. With increase of technology, the bank should update the IS up-to-date for providing best services to the customer.. In the Online banking system security should be increased.

Depression in 1920s Essays -- essays research papers

How was Australia affected by depression in 1920’s? Australia was one of the countries deeply affected by the Depression. This was due to the fact that Australia heavily depended on the imports, trade and investment intake from overseas. The economy was already unstable and was in trouble during the 1920's. The wealth of the economy was only based on the high prices of Australia's exports and primary products, a growing volume of exports and a continued stream of investments into Australia. Any serious reduction to the price and volume of exports and reduction of overseas loans would cause problems. An indication of danger was Australia's large and rapidly increasing overseas interest bill. By the late 1920's, the prices of Australian's exports were also falling. With the continuation of the declining price, Australia would have a difficult struggle to pay for its imports and repayment of loans. Australia was affected so severely as its primary source of income was taken away. Employees in public works, building and construction lost their jobs, as loans were no longer being funded for these projects. This also reduced the demand for goods produced in other industries. Australia's workmen had a severe lost of jobs and wages. How was the government responding and assisting the population? â€Å"Susso† Those who were unemployed were entitled to the application of the 'susso', a sustenance or dole payment. A person seeking this assistance had to register and demonstrate that th...

Halliburton Essay

One of the most important functions for any organization to succeed in any particular direction is planning. Planning is an activity that enables companies and their employees to understand the company’s purpose and its strategic direction so that they can align themselves to it. This paper will discuss the importance of planning at Halliburton Company and analyze the extent to which it impacts the legal, ethical and CSR issues in the organization. Furthermore, it will discuss three factors that have an influence on the company’s strategic, tactical, operational and contingency planning. Halliburton Company was established in 1919 in Houston, Texas with a second headquarter in Dubai, UAE. Currently employing over 50,000 people, it is a huge multinational and global leader in the energy services sector operating in more than 70 countries. Using its technological edge in its operations and assistance from its world-class human resource, Halliburton has demonstrated outstanding growth and development in the energy sector over the past several decades. Its focus on innovation dates back to its early years when its founder, Erle P. Halliburton initiated his oil well cementing business by building a wooden mixing box only by hiring a wagon, a team of mules and a pump in Oklahoma. Careful planning and effective strategies have enabled Halliburton to remain as the market leader in the energy sector for almost a century now. Its planning strategies are comprehensive, focused on global changes and follow the â€Å"Think globally, act locally† theme. Halliburton management realizes the fact that for global survival it is essential to adopt different methodologies in different countries. For this purpose, it operates from 2 headquarters – Texas, the oil hub of the West and Dubai, the trading hub of Asia and Europe. â€Å"The number one priority of Halliburton is to provide competitive, safe and superior quality products and services†. Halliburton management maintains that in order to ensure business continuity they must explore the unexplored parts of the world for newer energy reserves bringing in environmental concerns. Thus, there are several instances when Corporate Social Responsibility and other issues have an impact on the planning of Halliburton and its strategy planning. There are often differences in the legal framework of different countries, for example, the British and American laws pertaining to environmental exploration have different clauses. This results in differences in the local planning of future steps to be taken by Halliburton in maintaining its market position and extending its operations. Ethics also play a key role in shaping up its policies and plans for the future. Environmental concerns, consideration for animal and plant wildlife are some of the factors the Halliburton management takes into account when planning its activities. For example, if oil exploration in the Sahara will result in extinction of the sub-Saharan tigers living in the region, the company will develop an alternative plan. Global companies as large as Halliburton have to manage their activities and operations collaboratively; sometimes the ethical and legal frameworks of adjacent countries can render certain actions legal in one nation and illegal in another nation. Thus corporate planning is a very extensive process at Halliburton which involves considerable amount of consideration given to regional subsidies of the company. Though corporate social responsibility and legal issues dominate the effect on the planning activities of Halliburton, ethical considerations also sometimes require plans to be modified. For example, Halliburton’s operations in Saudi Arabia have to be controlled differently than its operations in the US. The ethics standards and beliefs in the two countries are different and regulate different practices. For instance, daytime operations during the fasting season where the temperature is very high is not restricted by law. Even the workers may be willing to work, but ethics and moral standards suggest that Halliburton operations should be continued at night during those days. There are several factors which affect the course of action of companies. Often we see changes in the stock market leading to important strategic planning changes in companies. However, most of these are short-term plans and do not affect the vision of the company by a significant degree. Some of the most important factors which have a contribution towards the company’s strategic, tactical, operational, and contingency planning are as follows: Potential Energy Reserves: Halliburton thrives on its energy reserves and constant exploration of newer energy sites. Its strategic and international planning is based upon the potential energy reserves of a region. A region where there are high energy reserves would naturally be an area for long-term planning for Halliburton management while a exit strategy may be prepared for a dried up site in Japan. Its strategy is the key to business continuity and profits and thus takes into account the future business that can be generated from a particular region. Taxation and Corporate Laws: The reason why Nevada is the registered as the corporate head office of thousands of companies is because of its tax-friendly laws. Halliburton’s expansion and acquisition strategies are dependent on the corporate taxation and regulations that are enforceable in a particular state or country. These laws influence to a great degree the company’s operational and contingency panning as well. Avoiding over-taxation requires careful hindsight in operational and acquisition activities. Companies like Halliburton need to have effective planning strategies in order to save huge amounts in taxation and legal fees. Culture: The culture of Texas may be very oil-friendly however, that may not be the case in Brazil. The differences in culture, customs and therefore the code of ethics is important for Halliburton to realize and respect. Companies not caring about these factors often face problems in the long-term. Nike could not stop the sweatshop crisis news from coming into the media which caused hundreds of thousands of dollars loss to the company and several protests were lodged against the company till it finally winded up its operations. Halliburton’s planning should take into account the resident cultural practices and base its plan according to them – violation of local culture is often taken very strongly by the people and is revoked at some point or the other.

Regression: Soft Drink Demand

DATA SET 1 Soft Drink Demand Estimation Demand can be estimated with experimental data, time series data or cross section data. Sara Lee Corporation generates experimental data in test stores where the effect of an NFL-licensed Carolina Panthers logo on Champion sweatshirt sales can be carefully monitored. Demand forecasts usually rely on time series data. In contrast, cross-section data appear in Table 1. Soft drink consumption in cans per year is related to six pack price, income per capita, and mean temperature across the 48 contiguous sates in the United States Question . Estimate the demand for soft drinks using a multiple regression program available on your computer. 2. Interpret the coefficients and calculate the price elasticity of soft drink demand 3. Omit price from the regression equation and observe the bias introduced into the parameter estimate for income. 4. Now omit both price and temperature from the regression equation. Should a marketing plan for soft drinks be de signed that relocates most canned drink machines into low income neighborhoods?Why or Why not? DATA SET 2 The data are the results of the following market research experiment by a large company. The company’s total market area was divided into 40 equally populated market areas, and the price to be charged for the product was set to be the same in each area. Then, the weekly amount of advertising expenditure ($) in each of these market areas was set as indicated in column B. The weekly sales (y units) in each market area was then recorded as shown in column C. 1.Use linear regression to estimate a linear equation describing how the value of sales (y) varies with the level of the fitted equation. 2. Assess the validity of the fitted equation. 3. If the product sells at a price of $100 and costs $70 per unit to produce, estimate a linear equation for the company’s weekly profit in terms of its advertising expenditure (x). DATA SET 3 The Sales of Cycle City, a large motorc ycle and moped distributor, grew significantly during the 1990s. This past history of sales growth is indicated in data set 3. . What is the compound annual rate of growth in sales for Cycle City over this 10 year period? 2. Based on your answer in part (1) what sales would you have forecasted for the next (2001)? 3. Graph the growth in sales over the 10 years. What happened to the rate of growth over this period? 4. Based on your answer to Part (3), what sales would you have forecasted for 2001. DATA SET 4 Pizza firm The manager of pizza firm collects data on the last 24 month of pizza sales from her own company records.Where Q= sales of pizza at Checkers Pizza P = Price of a pizza at Checker Pizza M = Average annual household income in Westbury Pai = price of a pizza at Al’s Pizza Oven Pbmac = price of Big Mac at McDonald’s 1. Estimate the linear demand function for Checkers Pizza compare to nonlinear model 2. Estimate demand elasticities at values of P, M, Pal, and Pbmac at values P=9. 05, M=26614 , Pal = 10. 12 and Pbmac = 1. 15 (for either demand function) 3. Forecast linear trend regression model to forecast income in month 30 DATA Set 5The copper data consist of 25 annual observations on world consumption of copper, copper price and the exogenous variables required to estimate industry demand and supply equation Data presented are actually valued for 1950-1975 Qc= world consumption sales of copper in 1000 of metric tons Pc = price of copper in cents per pound (inflation adjusted) M= index of real per capita income 1970=100 Pa = price of aluminum in cents per pound (inflation adjusted) X= ratio of consumption in the previous year to production in the previous year (=Qc/Qp) T=technology (time period is a proxy) 1.Estimate the copper industry demand and supply equation 2. Locate copper demand and supply in year 26 3. Calculate the intersection of the demand and supply functions DATA Set 6 Given data set 6, the quantity demanded of a commodity (Y) ,it’s price (X1) and consumer income (X2) from 1986-2005 1. Estimate the regression equation of Y on X1 and X2 2. Assess the validity of the fitted equation. 3. What is price elasticity at $4 and income elasticity at level 3800? Explain what kind of commodity (Y) is? 4. Forecast linear trend regression model to forecast income in year 2006 Regression: Soft Drink Demand DATA SET 1 Soft Drink Demand Estimation Demand can be estimated with experimental data, time series data or cross section data. Sara Lee Corporation generates experimental data in test stores where the effect of an NFL-licensed Carolina Panthers logo on Champion sweatshirt sales can be carefully monitored. Demand forecasts usually rely on time series data. In contrast, cross-section data appear in Table 1. Soft drink consumption in cans per year is related to six pack price, income per capita, and mean temperature across the 48 contiguous sates in the United States Question . Estimate the demand for soft drinks using a multiple regression program available on your computer. 2. Interpret the coefficients and calculate the price elasticity of soft drink demand 3. Omit price from the regression equation and observe the bias introduced into the parameter estimate for income. 4. Now omit both price and temperature from the regression equation. Should a marketing plan for soft drinks be de signed that relocates most canned drink machines into low income neighborhoods?Why or Why not? DATA SET 2 The data are the results of the following market research experiment by a large company. The company’s total market area was divided into 40 equally populated market areas, and the price to be charged for the product was set to be the same in each area. Then, the weekly amount of advertising expenditure ($) in each of these market areas was set as indicated in column B. The weekly sales (y units) in each market area was then recorded as shown in column C. 1.Use linear regression to estimate a linear equation describing how the value of sales (y) varies with the level of the fitted equation. 2. Assess the validity of the fitted equation. 3. If the product sells at a price of $100 and costs $70 per unit to produce, estimate a linear equation for the company’s weekly profit in terms of its advertising expenditure (x). DATA SET 3 The Sales of Cycle City, a large motorc ycle and moped distributor, grew significantly during the 1990s. This past history of sales growth is indicated in data set 3. . What is the compound annual rate of growth in sales for Cycle City over this 10 year period? 2. Based on your answer in part (1) what sales would you have forecasted for the next (2001)? 3. Graph the growth in sales over the 10 years. What happened to the rate of growth over this period? 4. Based on your answer to Part (3), what sales would you have forecasted for 2001. DATA SET 4 Pizza firm The manager of pizza firm collects data on the last 24 month of pizza sales from her own company records.Where Q= sales of pizza at Checkers Pizza P = Price of a pizza at Checker Pizza M = Average annual household income in Westbury Pai = price of a pizza at Al’s Pizza Oven Pbmac = price of Big Mac at McDonald’s 1. Estimate the linear demand function for Checkers Pizza compare to nonlinear model 2. Estimate demand elasticities at values of P, M, Pal, and Pbmac at values P=9. 05, M=26614 , Pal = 10. 12 and Pbmac = 1. 15 (for either demand function) 3. Forecast linear trend regression model to forecast income in month 30 DATA Set 5The copper data consist of 25 annual observations on world consumption of copper, copper price and the exogenous variables required to estimate industry demand and supply equation Data presented are actually valued for 1950-1975 Qc= world consumption sales of copper in 1000 of metric tons Pc = price of copper in cents per pound (inflation adjusted) M= index of real per capita income 1970=100 Pa = price of aluminum in cents per pound (inflation adjusted) X= ratio of consumption in the previous year to production in the previous year (=Qc/Qp) T=technology (time period is a proxy) 1.Estimate the copper industry demand and supply equation 2. Locate copper demand and supply in year 26 3. Calculate the intersection of the demand and supply functions DATA Set 6 Given data set 6, the quantity demanded of a commodity (Y) ,it’s price (X1) and consumer income (X2) from 1986-2005 1. Estimate the regression equation of Y on X1 and X2 2. Assess the validity of the fitted equation. 3. What is price elasticity at $4 and income elasticity at level 3800? Explain what kind of commodity (Y) is? 4. Forecast linear trend regression model to forecast income in year 2006

A Modo De Introducción †A Brave New World

A Modo De Introduccià ³n – A Brave New World Free Online Research Papers A Modo De Introduccià ³n A Brave New World Nos refugiamos en los sistemas,en las iglesias, en los partidos, en las ortodoxias, como chicos en las faldas de la madre. Los sistemas son en suma, manifestaciones de cobardà ­a. El hombre libre, el herà ©tico el solitario, tiene que estar poseà ­do de un valor casi demencial E. Sabato, Heterodoxia (1953) Los acontecimientos histà ³ricos se repiten en forma similar entre los diferentes paà ­ses en el momento de su formacià ³n, independientemente de su distancia, cultura, raza o credo. Generalmente, observamos una sucesià ³n comà ºn de hechos que permite, en el anlisis de la historia, obtener alguna certeza en los resultados. Hay patrones repetidos una y otra vez en la formacià ³n de civilizaciones, fenà ³menos que confirman la tendencia pronosticada. Sin embargo, no se puede determinar si lo que produce esta conducta sistemtica es el hecho de tomar en cuenta modelos comunes o una evolucià ³n casi idà ©ntica del nacimiento de la nueva civilizacià ³n por razones naturales del hombre. De cualquier manera, al formarse un nuevo paà ­s, uno tiene elementos para definir el futuro inmediato observando los ejemplos que nos brindan los dems paà ­ses, lo que alivia la incertidumbre. Pero si un paà ­s, a partir de su formacià ³n, se diferencia del resto, es difà ­cil predecir su destino. Este es el caso de los Estados Unidos de Amà ©rica. El motivo de su historia particular lo encontramos en sus orà ­genes. El hecho de ser el primer paà ­s demà ³crata desde su independencia nos da la pauta de donde empezar nuestro anlisis. Es la democracia la caracterà ­stica esencial de este paà ­s . Es por eso que resultarà ­a adecuado analizar el surgimiento y la evolucià ³n de esta democracia, ya que es a partir de ella que el paà ­s adquiere identidad. La evolucià ³n de la democracia en Amà ©rica nos va mostrando claramente distintos aspectos de la cultura Norteamericana de hoy en dà ­a, lo que hace por dems interesante la historia de dicho paà ­s. Asà ­, en los ciudadanos de Norteamà ©rica, podemos llegar a encontrar el fanatismo de los padres peregrinos del Mayflower, la ilusià ³n de progreso econà ³mico de los indentured servants, el populismo de Jackson o el patriotismo de Lincoln. La intencià ³n de este trabajo es explicar, mediante datos histà ³ricos, fenà ³menos sociolà ³gicos y opiniones, las distintas etapas por las que atravesà ³ la democracia americana desde su independencia en 1776 hasta el inicio de la Primera Guerra Mundial. Veremos como, desde un primer momento, se forman dos grupos casi opuestos, cuyas alianzas varà ­an segà ºn la polà ­tica a implementar, y, aun asà ­, el paà ­s se mantiene unido y en democracia durante todo el periodo analizado. Observaremos como hay varios conflictos de intereses cruzados, como se resuelven y sus consecuencias. Tambià ©n tendremos la posibilidad de conocer a los protagonistas de la historia americana, su forma de pensar y su incidencia en la construccià ³n de una nueva nacià ³n. De esa forma, estar a nuestro alcance, si el objetivo del trabajo es logrado, comprender a la sociedad americana y contemplar tanto los logros como los puntos oscuros de la democracia en Amà ©rica. La Democracia ms exclusiva La independencia: Just do it Durante 200 aà ±os, entre los siglos XVI y XVII, Europa se vio sacudida por una carrera casi obsesiva por lograr conquistar nuevos territorios y establecer colonias en cualquier lugar del mundo. Los espaà ±oles lograron un fuerte expansionismo colonial en Amà ©rica Central y del Sur, donde incalculables riquezas tentaron a los dems paà ­ses a aventurarse hacia mares desconocidos y territorios inexplorados para establecer supremacà ­a sobre el resto de Europa. Esta tendencia encuentra su motivo en el mercantilismo. El mercantilismo era la idea de que el poder era consecuencia del bienestar de un paà ­s. Aquel que alcanzara el mayor tesoro era el ms poderoso. Mientras Espaà ±a gozaba de los beneficios que le habà ­a otorgado el robo de oro y plata a las civilizaciones indà ­genas de Mà ©xico y Perà º, Francia e Inglaterra expandà ­an sus fronteras hacia Africa y hacia Amà ©rica del Norte. Fue de esta manera que se asentaron las bases de lo que luego serian los Estados Unidos. Inglaterra formà ³ su colonia en Amà ©rica no solo como una fuente de materias primas, sino como un mercado para sus productos manufacturados. En principio, las colonias no tuvieron à ©xito, pero en 1607, una colonia establecida en Virginia logro sobrevivir mediante el cultivo de tabaco. Por su parte, en el Norte, en 1620 se forma una colonia de disidentes que niegan al rey como una autoridad religiosa, impuesto por el anglicanismo, y deciden poner distancia a la polà ­tica inglesa. Estos colonos son el ala ms radical del protestantismo, los puritanos, cuya visià ³n â€Å"diabà ³lica† del consumo los lleva a invertir capital y establecer un pequeà ±o autoabastecimiento, mediante farmers y artesanos, que los lleva, para perjuicio de Inglaterra, a dominar el mercado interno. Sin embargo, no resultaba fcil la vida en estas tierras del Norte. El clima no era adecuado para las plantaciones, por lo tanto, buscaron otras actividades laborales. La que ms se desarrollo en esta à ©poca fue la construccià ³n de barcos. Esto se ve constatado por Jeremy Atack y Peter Passell en su anlisis econà ³mico de las colonias: During the colonial period, ocean shipping employed perhaps 5 to 10 percent of the labour forceIn the decade before the Revolution, exports and related services accounted for about one-sixth of colonial income. The performance of the shipping industry was very important to the overall economy La abundante cantidad de madera desligaba a esta industria de toda dependencia con Inglaterra. En el Sur, las cosas eran distintas. Aunque la poblacià ³n en Amà ©rica crecà ­a a pasos agigantados, la mano de obra era escasa. A diferencia de las colonias espaà ±olas, las tierras debà ­an ser trabajadas. Es asà ­ como surgen dos nuevas formas de trabajo: los indentured servants y los esclavos. Los indentured servants eran gente de Inglaterra que querà ­a emigrar a Amà ©rica a cualquier precio. Firmaban un contrato con la persona que los transportarà ­a hasta Amà ©rica por medio del cual se comprometà ­an a trabajar una vez llegados hasta cubrir los costos del viaje. Por su parte, el transportista negociaba en el puerto americano con los terratenientes, vendiendo asà ­ a los indentured servants. Estos deberà ­an servir por cierta cantidad de aà ±os y luego quedaban libres. La cantidad de aà ±os que debà ­an servir al terrateniente era variable segà ºn la edad, el sexo y la salud del indentured. Atack y Passell lo describen: An analysis of the characteristics of indentured servants reveals that the vast majority were males in their late teens and early twenties. They were at the peak of their productive ability, representing a significant capital export from the mother country, which had met their rearing costs from infancy to productive adult and borne the costs of early mortality of non survivors. La esclavitud resulta uno de los puntos ms oscuros de la democracia americana, no solo antes de la independencia, sino mucho ms despuà ©s de ella. A pesar de que en Inglaterra no existà ­a este tipo de trabajo forzado, serà ­a ingenuo afirmar que fue la falta de mano de obra en Amà ©rica la que llevo a recurrir al esclavismo e ignorar el racismo como origen. Los esclavos, en principio son prisioneros tomados entre tribus africanas que eran trocados por armas y ron. Para comprender un poco mejor este tipo de trabajo, Peter Kolchin explica: it soon became clear to settlers that survival depended on working the landCultivating these crops, however, required labor; in an enviroment where land was plentiful and people few, the amount of tobacco or rice one could grow depended on the number of laborers one could command. The desire to develop commercial agriculture under conditions of population scarcity gave rise in North Amà ©rica to forced laborIn short, it was a world with few ide ological constraints against the use of forced labour. Los esclavos iban en su mayorà ­a para el Sur, donde la mano de obra era ms pesada. La llegada de esclavos se hacà ­a cada vez ms sistemtica. Ya habà ­a mercados en frica, e incluso se consideraba un derecho para sustituir las colonias espaà ±olas. Ante este panorama, la evolucià ³n econà ³mica era muy importante. A pesar de ello, Inglaterra no tomaba muy en cuenta sus colonias en Amà ©rica, pues las consideraba inferiores a la dems. Ya se habà ­an formado varias colonias con una produccià ³n considerable (Boston, Massachussets, Maryland, Salem, Virginia, etc.) La poca importancia que le da Inglaterra a sus colonias les da independencia suficiente como para autogobernarse. Se produce, a la vez, una vertiginosa expansià ³n hacia el oeste. Los gobernantes que eran enviados a las colonias poco hacà ­an por cumplir su funcià ³n y ms que nada, se dedicaban a negociar con los locales. Al tà ©rmino de la Guerra De Los 7 Aà ±os, guerra que se lleva a cabo entre Inglaterra y Francia entre 1756 y 1763, disputndose en à ©sta los territorios del Mississipi, Inglaterra toma conciencia del poco poder que ejercà ­a sobre las colonias. En un intento por reestablecer un control nunca poseà ­do sobre las colonias, Inglaterra tiene intenciones de cobrar impuestos. A partir de este primer chispazo, surgen ideas independentistas, especialmente en el Norte, donde el à ­ndice de alfabetizacià ³n era mucho ms elevado. Los ingleses pierden toda autoridad y son, incluso, ridiculizados cuando los colonos organizan el llamado Tea Party en Boston y arrojan el cargamento de tà © importado al mar, en protesta por el establecimiento de una ley de monopolio del tà © por parte de los ingleses en las indias orientales. Sin embargo, este hecho es reprimido fuertemente y Boston es tomado militarmente. Como consecuencia, los colonos se reà ºnen en dos congresos, que dan por resultado la decisià ³n de independizarse. Con 800 dà ³lares de PBI dividido en 3500000 habitantes, las colonias firman la Declaracià ³n de Independencia y, consecuentemente, con el apoyo de Francia, eterno rival de Inglaterra, la guerra. El debate: We try harder Once aà ±os mas tarde, esas repà ºblicas, que mantenà ­an una precaria unidad mediante el và ­nculo confederativo, constituyeron un gobierno nacional. En los là ­mites de la civilizacià ³n, el nuevo mundo que lindaba con la naturaleza salvaje presenciaba un hecho inà ©dito. La teorà ­a y la experiencia antiguas habà ­an instalado a la republica en el marco estrecho de la ciudad En Amà ©rica del Norte el cuadro era radicalmente distinto: la extensià ³n, casi infinita; la poblacià ³n, numerosa y en aumento. Natalio Botana nos da a entender asà ­ la situacià ³n de Amà ©rica del Norte despuà ©s de su independencia. Algo totalmente nuevo se presentaba y habà ­a que organizarlo. El punto de partida era la virtud, pero las corrientes eran diversas cuando se planteaba el origen de la virtud. Willi Adams explica: Ni la Declaracià ³n de Independencia ni el Tratado de Paz daban respuesta a la cuestià ³n de cà ³mo habrà ­a que estar organizado polà ­ticamente el Nuevo Estado. El nuevo orden polà ­tico se expresaba sobre todo en las nuevas constituciones de los diversos estados y en los artà ­culos de la confederacià ³n. Estas estipulaciones se basaban en la democracia representativa (asà ­, Alexander Hamilton, en 1777, sobre la constitucià ³n de Nueva York) y sobre la repà ºblica comercial federativa. El debate encontraba su origen en la teorà ­a clsica. Por un lado, Jefferson, un plantador de Virginia, tenà ­a una idea de democracia agraria que coincidà ­a con Rousseau. Segà ºn Jefferson, la virtud se halla en el campo, mientras que las ciudades son cuna de ambicià ³n, pues la ciudad crea dependencia, por lo tanto tampoco hay problemas con las repà ºblicas de grandes extensiones, pues el hombre se aproxima a su naturaleza. Para los jeffersonianos la igualdad era lo ms importante para poder conservar la repà ºblica y no alejarse de la virtud. Por el otro lado, Hamilton encontraba que cada individuo buscarà ­a su propio interà ©s. Las utopà ­as de la virtud y del orden esclavista no tienen lugar para Hamilton Impera en cambio el valor supremo y la libertad, que es patrimonio de todos, habitantes y ciudadanos. La legislacià ³n es la que debe orientar al hombre hacia el bien pà ºblico, porque el hombre se dejar llevar por sus pasiones. Hamilton, al igual que Montesquieu, descreà ­a en la repà ºblica de grandes territorios y consideraba como bien supremo la libertad. Entre estos dos polos se va a debatir la sociedad americana durante todo el perà ­odo que analizamos: Igualdad y Libertad. El ideal de una sociedad igualitaria de Jefferson y el conformismo de tan solo dominar pasiones de Hamilton alternarn en el gobierno de esta nueva repà ºblica. Los partidarios de Jefferson forman un partido, llamado Partido Republicano, mientras que los partidarios de Hamilton forman el Partido Federalista. Botana resume: La republica igualitaria se extendà ­a hacia el Norte, la repà ºblica esclavista se prolongaba hacia el Sur y entre ambas se abrà ­a una frontera que miraba hacia el oeste, cuyo destino, todavà ­a incierto, podà ­a reproducir, a modo de colonia antigua, como querà ­a Jefferson, una reserva imperecedera para difundir la igualdad. Comienza la democracia A pesar de no tener aà ºn una Constitucià ³n, el voto blanco universal se dio desde las primeras elecciones. El debate entre republicanos y federalistas demoraba el dictado de alguna legislacià ³n que organice la nueva repà ºblica. Se firman, en un Congreso de Filadelfia, los Artà ­culos de Confederacià ³n. En estos se pusieron de manifiesto los intereses de los estados. Los estados grandes querà ­an representacià ³n por nà ºmero de habitantes, mientras que los estados chicos pedà ­an igual representacià ³n para todos. En este momento, comienza un perà ­odo de ruralizacià ³n. Los estados campesinos emiten moneda para licuar las deudas que tenà ­an con los comerciantes del Norte. Asà ­ Surge la idea de una constitucià ³n. En 1789 George Washington se transforma en el primer presidente de los Estados Unidos de Amà ©rica y se dicta la Constitucià ³n. Como puntos ms salientes de la Constitucià ³n, flexible y amplia, podemos mencionar la formacià ³n de dos cmaras para la legislacià ³n: diputados y senadores, la determinacià ³n de establecer un estado central que de lugar a los otros estados y la supremacà ­a de tres derechos fundamentales: derecho a la vida, a la libertad y a la felicidad. Despuà ©s de las elecciones, Hamilton, como secretario del tesoro, comienza a adquirir poder. Funda el Bank of U.S., gran enemigo de Jefferson, que habà ­a renunciado a su cargo de secretario de estado. La polà ­tica de Washington, bajo las ideas de Hamilton, se basa en generar confianza en el paà ­s para lograr prà ©stamos. Es esto lo que lleva a Washington a firmar un tratado por el que se le permità ­a la libre navegacià ³n por el Mississipi a Espaà ±a con la condicià ³n de que Louisiana no fuera atacado ni por Espaà ±a ni por Inglaterra. A causa de este tratado, Washington pierde popularidad y renuncia a su tercera candidatura. A Washington lo sucede Adams en 1796 con Jefferson como vicepresidente, aguardando su oportunidad que lleva en 1800. La campaà ±a electoral de 1800 se convirtià ³ en una irreconciliable confrontacià ³n ideolà ³gica entre federalistas y jeffersonianos. La acalorada propaganda de ambas partes llenà ³ perià ³dicos y folletos//los jeffersonian os agitaron los nimos de los descontentos y llamaron a que se pusiese fin al poder aristocrtico de los federalistas, y que los federalistas previnieron contra el ocaso de la libertad y el triunfo del ateà ­smo en la persona de Jefferson describe Adams en su texto. Con el triunfo de Jefferson en las elecciones se da comienzo al perà ­odo conocido como la democracia agraria El origen de la Democracia Agraria El gobierno de Jefferson se caracterizà ³ por la adquisicià ³n de nuevas tierras. Segà ºn Jefferson, la propiedad de tierras serà ­a lo que llevarà ­a a la igualdad. La compra de Lousiana a Napoleà ³n indigna a los federales, pues si seguà ­a extendià ©ndose el territorio, la repà ºblica se harà ­a ingobernable. En el Sur, habà ­a remates arreglados previamente, los ocupantes de las tierras amenazaban al martillero, que se veà ­a obligado a hacer su trabajo a punta de rifle. A pesar de este expansionismo territorial, se mantiene el gobierno central, pero el banco expira y circulan varios tipos de moneda. La polà ­tica inflacionaria beneficia tanto a los plantadores del Sur, pues sus principales ingresos venà ­an de las exportaciones, como a los farmers, pues sus deudas con el Norte se licuan. Esto genera una alianza entre el Sur y el oeste. Tras dos mandatos, Jefferson deja el gobierno en manos de Madison, un ex federalista que toma la doctrina jeffersoniana como ideologà ­a. Continà ºa la polà ­tica de expansià ³n, lo que genera una nueva guerra con Inglaterra, llamada 2da. Guerra de Independencia. Esta guerra perjudica profundamente a los comerciantes del Norte por dos motivos: sus exportaciones se veà ­an bloqueadas y la guerra les costarà ­a mucho dinero. Durante la guerra las importaciones deben ser sustituidas, por lo tanto, Surgen pequeà ±as fbricas textiles que reciben el apoyo de los republicanos. Los fabricantes no tardan en aliarse con los plantadores y los farmers, pues consideraban a los comerciantes y a los banqueros como parsitos, pues no producen. Estados Unidos entra en su primera revolucià ³n industrial. Al firmarse la paz con Inglaterra, en 1816, para proteger la nueva industria, el gobierno se ve en la necesidad de poner tarifas, lo que genera un conflicto de intereses entre farmers y fabricantes. Este enfrentamiento produce la ruptura del Partido Republicano. En ese momento, aparece la figura de Andrew Jackson, con el discurso de retornar a la polà ­tica agraria, eliminando los manufactureros. En las elecciones de 1817, James Monroe llega al poder. Bajo una profunda crisis econà ³mica causada por una fuga de capitales por sobreinversià ³n, Monroe se ve obligado a crear el segundo Bank of U.S.., cuya emisià ³n de moneda es restrictiva. La polà ­tica de Monroe se basa en el intervencionismo. Protege a Amà ©rica de Espaà ±a bajo el lema Amà ©rica For The Americans. El expansionismo sigue con la compra de Florida a Espaà ±a. Durante el gobierno de Monroe, Andrew Jackson forma el Partido Demà ³crata, en reemplazo del Partido Republicano, que ataca al establishment y al banco, con el incondicional apoyo del Sur. En las elecciones de 1824, gana John Quincy Adams, quien, sin adquirir mucha importancia, genera el camino para la llegada de Jackson a la presidencia. El auge de la Democracia Agraria No creo que haya paà ­s en el mundo que, proporcionalmente con su poblacià ³n, ofrezca menor nà ºmero de ignorantes ni menos sabios, que Amà ©rica//En Amà ©rica hay pocos ricos, y casi todos los americanos tienen la necesidad de ejercer alguna profesià ³n, y estos exigen un aprendizaje, por lo cual aquellos que no tienen ms tiempo para la cultura general de la inteligencia que el de los primeros aà ±os de su vida Toqueville sigue diciendo: En Amà ©rica, es el pueblo quien nombra a los que hacen las leyes y a los que las ejecutan//Las instituciones no son allà ­ democrticas solo en principios; sino que lo son en todos sus desenvolvimientos//Es, pues, en realidad, el pueblo quien allà ­ dirige; y aunque la forma de gobierno sea representativa, es evidente que las opiniones, los prejuicios, los intereses y las pasiones del pueblo, no hallan obstculos durables que les impidan influir constantemente en la direccià ³n de la sociedad La precisa impresià ³n que arroja Alexis de Toqueville que, en tiempos de Jackson, estuvo por Amà ©rica, parece cumplir con todos los ideales de igualdad de Jefferson. Y es quizs el gobierno de Jackson el que lleva a la prctica lo que Jefferson predicaba. Jackson llega al poder en 1828, con un desproporcionado poder en el Sur. Adems, habà ­a tambià ©n adquirido cierta popularidad en el Norte, pues captaba los votos de los inmigrantes, logrando su nacionalizacià ³n y dndoles trabajos pà ºblicos rpidamente. Hace del Partido Demà ³crata un umbrella party acaparando votos de muchos sectores populares. El principal debate del periodo se encontraba entre la igualdad de condiciones y la igualdad de oportunidades. El Partido Demà ³crata argumentaba que la igualdad de oportunidades pregonada por los federalistas no era suficientemente justa, tambià ©n hacia falta crear una igualdad de condiciones. Richard B. Latner explica: They (democrats) afirmed a commitment to relative equality of wealth as a necessary, instrumental condition for mantaining political liberty/for the key group of Democrats Surrounding Jackson who ran the party, equality of outcomes, as well as equality of rights and opportunity, was a necessary condition for sustaining republican liberty . Durante el gobierno de Jackson, Estados Unidos expandià ³ ms aà ºn sus fronteras. En una guerra con Mà ©xico, se produce la anexià ³n de Texas y se le compra el noroeste a Inglaterra. Jackson sufrà ­a una fuerte oposicià ³n por parte de los diputados del nordeste, pues la expansià ³n territorial iba en contra de la virtud y adems comienza a revelarse uno de los problemas ms graves que enfrento Estados Unidos: el esclavismo. La aparicià ³n de grupos antiesclavistas divide aun ms al Norte del Sur, ya que, en medio del auge del algodà ³n, la esclavitud habà ­a llegado a niveles muy altos en el Sur. Para solucionar provisoriamente este problema, se establece una là ­nea, llamada Mason-Dixon, que divide a los estados esclavistas de los no esclavistas, para obtener asà ­ igual representacià ³n en el Congreso Federal. El sistema de alianzas cambia, pues para los farmers del Oeste, los planters del Sur no eran un mercado, por lo tanto, se unen a los comerciantes del Norte que sà ƒ ­ consumà ­an su produccià ³n. La igualdad que se habà ­a logrado parecà ­a el paraà ­so demà ³crata, sin embargo, esta ilusià ³n no llegarà ­a muy lejos. Rumbo a la guerra civil La brecha entre el Sur y el Norte se abrà ­a cada vez ms con la radicalizacià ³n de sus ideas. Mientras que el auge del algodà ³n hacia de los esclavos un medio fundamental de vida en el Sur, en el Norte los grupos abolicionistas se multiplicaban. Pero no solo el esclavismo era tema de debate, sino tambià ©n las ideas de small government del Sur contra las del big government del Norte generaban discordia. Aunque todos estos motivos eran acarreados desde hacà ­a tiempo, no habà ­an aparecido lideres tan radicales que les dieran tanto à ©nfasis. Estos lideres Surgieron en la dà ©cada del 30 con Lincoln en el Norte y Calhoun en el Sur. Calhoun Surge como vicepresidente de Jackson. Aparentemente, sus semejanzas generarà ­an una fuerte unià ³n. Asà ­ lo menciona William W. Freehling: Calhoun and Jackson many similarities lent a hope. Both worked slave gangs on early cotton frontiers.//Both leaderswere of Scotch Irish descent.//Both Southeners came to dominance as wartime nationalists.//In the 1820s, with hard times afflicting planters in both Tennessee and South Carolina, they coalesced against Adams . Y sin embargo, el radicalismo de Calhoun marcarà ­a sus diferencias. For Jackson and Calhoun, the shared fact of slaveholding was not enough. Their conceptions of masters ´ right to rule and their method of ruling were as distant as South Carolina was from Tennessee. The conflict between their views centered on different reconciliations of slavery and republicanism. Jackson, race-obsessed authoritarian, believed upperclass control must end at the color line.//Calhoun, while no less a racist, still believed the be st men must govern all races Calhoun opinaba que si una ley federal perjudicaba a alguno de los estados, este estado podà ­a pedir la nulidad de dicha ley. Finalmente, a raà ­z de estas diferencias con Jackson, toma el poder del Partido Demà ³crata y radicaliza su rumbo, pues pide la separacià ³n. El Partido Demà ³crata deja de ser el umbrella party que representaba tanto a los farmers como a los planters. Adams dice: Los sudistas radicales, dirigidos por John C. Calhoun fueron aun ms lejos al afirmar que, dado que los esclavos eran simples objetos de propiedad, y que a los americanos no podà ­a despojrseles de su propiedad salvo por el procedimiento legalmente establecido, los sudistas eran libres de llevar los esclavos a cualquier territorio del paà ­s con independencia de las normas dictadas por el Congreso o por cualquier otro organismo . Por su parte, en el Norte, en 1854, se crea el Partido Republicano. Al principio no obtiene mucho apoyo, pues su polà ­tica era a favor de los bancos y de la industria, apoyando una suba de tarifas a las importaciones. Adems, era un partido intolerante y antiesclavista. Sin embargo, acapara votos en los farmers implantando una polà ­tica de tierras. Este partido va ganando relevancia gracias a su polà ­tica antiesclavista, pues en California, que era en principio, segà ºn la là ­nea Masà ³n-Dixon, esclavista, Surge la fiebre del oro. Miles de personas marchan hacia el oeste para conseguir su riqueza, pero estos no necesitaban esclavos para trabajar con el oro, por lo tanto California se incorpora a la Unià ³n como estado no esclavista. La situacià ³n se presentaba grave. Segà ºn Adams: Lo grave era que muchos nordistas -y tambià ©n sudistas- habà ­an dejado de ver las cosas en un sentido racional, estrictamente hablando. Si lo que se alzaba frente al Norte ya no era el Sur real, una cultura preindustrial cuyo crecimiento potencial se hallaba condicionado por factores demogrficos, climatolà ³gicos y econà ³micos, sino el poder esclavista, era obvio que cualquier propuesta destinada a aumentar su zona de influencia habà ­a de tener un carcter amenazador . Esa era la manera de ver las cosas del senador Lincoln. Es de esta forma como en 1860, las elecciones las ganan los demà ³cratas, separados en esclavistas y no esclavistas. Esta divisià ³n hace que pocos electores lleguen al senado y que en 1861, el republicano Lincoln llegue a la presidencia y con su llegada, el Sur abandona la Unià ³n. La guerra civil y sus consecuencias Asà ­ pues, en las semanas siguientes a la eleccià ³n de Lincoln, acompaà ±ndose de citas de Thomas Jefferson y con la sensacià ³n de que seguà ­an los pasos de sus antepasados revolucionarios, los congresistas de los estados algodoneros se despidieron de sus colegas del Norte y emprendieron su viaje al Sur . Bajo este triste panorama, describe Adams la separacià ³n de la Unià ³n. Sin embargo, Lincoln no permitià ³ que esto sucediese. Con un ejercito casi irrisorio pero bien equipado, ataca al Sur. La clave de la guerra para el Norte era hacerla durar mucho pues estaban mejor provistos que el Sur, y asà ­ sucedià ³. Tras un buen comienzo del Sur con varias batallas ganadas, el ejà ©rcito del Norte gana la batalla de Gettysburgh y comienza una guerra de destruccià ³n, comandados por el general Grant y el general Sherman. A su paso, todos los pueblos eran destruidos y las plantaciones de algodà ³n quemadas. Esto hace que el Sur firme la rendicià ³n incondicional en 1865. No solo se habà ­a cumplido el objetivo de reunir al paà ­s, sino tambià ©n se logro la abolicià ³n de la esclavitud. La proclamacià ³n de la emancipacià ³n de esclavos se habà ­a firmado en 1863, pero los esclavos que habitaban en tierras de la Confederacià ³n no podà ­an gozar de su condicià ³n hasta que se reestableciera la Unià ³n. Ahora que esto habà ­a sido logrado, finalmente la esclavitud quedaba en la historia. Con respecto a las posiciones que se tomaron hacia el Sur por haber atentado contra la Unià ³n, aparecen dos posiciones, una fuerte y una blanda. Lincoln lideraba la idea de la unià ³n, el perdà ³n, por lo tanto opina que se debe permitir la reincorporacià ³n a todo estado del Sur que obtenga un 10% de habitantes que juren lealtad a la Unià ³n. Sus oponentes, los radicales republicanos, opinaban que la lealtad debà ­a ser jurada por un 50% de la poblacià ³n. Por su parte, los estados del Sur se encontraban ocupados militarmente, esperando la resolucià ³n ms benigna. Sin embargo, Lincoln es asesinado por un Sureà ±o que querà ­a vengar la guerra, lo que sirve a los republicanos radicales para reclamar mano dura contra el Sur. Comienza el perà ­odo conocido como Redemption. Reconstruccià ³n y corrupcià ³n Johnson, como vicepresidente, completa el mandato de Lincoln y cede el poder a Grant. Su mandato se caracteriza por la existencia de altà ­simos niveles de corrupcià ³n. Un diputado del Tammany Hall, la sede Norteà ±a del Partido Demà ³crata, llamado George Washington Plunkitt resume la idea: Yes, many of our men have grown rich in politics. I have myself.//I ´ve not gone in for dishonest graft -blackmailin ´gamblers, saloonkeepers, disorderly people, etc-//I seen my opportunities//Well, I ´m tipped off, say, that they ´re going to lay a park at a certain place.//I go to that place and buy all the land I can in the neighbourhood. Then the board of this or that makes its plan public and there is a rush to get my land, which nobody cared particular for before//that ´s honest graft . Llega, por este periodo, a regir el Spoil System, un sistema mediante el cual los amigos de la gente del gobierno podà ­an conseguir buenos trabajos. La reincorporacià ³n del Sur a la Unià ³n se torna en una obsesià ³n. Comienza una à ©poca de predominio del Partido Republicano. El costo del consumo aumenta a raà ­z de una suba en las tarifas de importacià ³n, pero esto genera un fuerte crecimiento de la industria local, que tambià ©n generan un gran mercado interno que beneficia a los farmers. Las tierras se habà ­an terminado de repartir con el Homestead Act. El Homestead Act era una polà ­tica de tierras impulsada por el Partido Republicano mediante el cual la persona que llega a la tierra se transforma en propietaria de la misma, por lo que se terminan las tierras y con ellas, la carrera hacia el oeste. El paà ­s comienza a tener un enorme crecimiento en poblacià ³n y en produccià ³n, lo que permite a Estados Unidos tener su revolucià ³n industrial. La caà ­da en los precios del transporte da lugar a enormes niveles de inmigracià ³n. Cuenta Adams: En 1825, un pasaje para Amà ©rica costaba 20 libras, en tanto que en 1863 el viaje en vapor suponà ­a à ºnicamente 4 libras y 15 chelines, y en 1890 ya era posible atravesar el Atlntico al reducido precio de 3 libras y 10 chelines . El crecimiento de poblacià ³n era proporcional con el crecimiento del PBI.  ¿Cà ³mo se explica semejante crecimiento? Podemos analizar el crecimiento desde dos puntos de vista diferentes, que, conjuntamente, hacen que Estados Unidos crezca hasta ser la primer potencia mundial. Primero, analizaremos que sucedià ³ con la produccià ³n. Se dieron, sucesivamente, dos fenà ³menos nuevos que multiplicaron la capacidad de las empresas. Estos fenà ³menos son conocidos con el nombre del Taylorismo y el Fordismo. Explica Thomas P. Hughes: Taylor ´s fundamental concept and guiding principle was to design a system of production involving both men and machines that would be as efficient as a well designed, well oiled machine. He said in the past, the man has been first; in the future the system must be first, a remark that did not sit well then with workers and their trade-union leaders and that today still rankles those who feel opresed by technology . Bajo este concepto del management como elemento necesario para el efectivo funcionamiento de la industria, las nuevas empresas aparecà ­an como plaga. Casi instantneamente, aparecà ­a el fordismo. Las nuevas empresas debà ­an producir, rpido y efectivamente, y en bà ºsqueda del sistema ms prctico para lograr la produccià ³n en masa, se llegà ³ a la là ­nea de montaje. Como una puesta en prctica de la divisià ³n del trabajo que Adam Smith propuso en su Riqueza de las Naciones, Ford comenzà ³ a construir automà ³viles sistemticamente, haciendo a un lado lo artesanal. Ford, unlike Taylor, did not need detailed schedules and routing instructions to direct the movements of materials and work across the shop floors. Ford and a few like-visioned mechanics and self-educated engeneers created at his Highland Park plant a system of mass production unlike any the world had ever before seen . Pero, a semejante crecimiento en la oferta, debà ­a responder tambià ©n un brutal crecimiento en la demanda. La idea de que cada individuo tiene acceso justo a la posicià ³n y el reconocimiento, y por consiguiente puede escapar del anonimato y las condiciones de la gente comà ºn, ha moldeado el significado y la comprensià ³n de la democracia americana . La ms que precisa definicià ³n que arroja Stuart Ewen es justamente lo que genera el consumismo. De pronto, los americanos entran en una fiebre de consumismo feroz, pues el sueà ±o americano cambia: no es ms la posesià ³n de tierras, sino que es la posesià ³n de bienes de consumo. Racismo Tras este blanco manto de progreso se escondà ­a quizs el ms oscuro elemento que tuvo la democracia americana: el racismo. En el perà ­odo comprendido entre 1877 y 1896, se produce la reincorporacià ³n a cualquier costo de los estados Sureà ±os. En 1870, los negros obtienen el derecho al voto. Sin embargo, el voto negro dura tan solo 7 aà ±os, debido a la enorme resistencia que genera esto en el Sur. Surge un problema que nunca antes habà ­a sido contemplado: los negros libres. El Sur intentaba convencer al Norte de que era un peligro para la sociedad mezclar a los negros con los blancos. Consideraban que el paà ­s corrà ­a el riesgo de terminar como Liberia, paà ­s de esclavos liberados. A partir de allà ­, Surgen los grupos radicales. Joel Williamson cuenta: Radicalism appeared in strength in 1889 and spread rapidly through the south. The core of the radical mentality was the concept that negroes, freed from the restraining influences of slavery, were rapidly retrogressing toward their natural state of bestiality//Radicals believed, there would be no place for blacks in the south or in Amà ©rica . El Sur Norteamericano a fines del siglo XIX era el ultimo lugar en donde un negro querrà ­a estar. La paranoia blanca lleva a crear leyes tcitas, conocidas como Jim Crow Laws. Estas leyes eran una serie de medidas segregacionistas que definà ­an restricciones y là ­neas divisorias entre negros y blancos en la vida diaria, como por ejemplo, en los baà ±os, en los bares y en los bebederos de las plazas. El radicalismo blanco opina que con los negros solo se puede tomar una polà ­tica de violencia y comienzan los linchamientos y las riots. Los linchamientos son ejecutados por un grupo racista llamado Ku Klux Clan, que, cubiertos de tà ºnicas blancas, representaban una suerte de juzgamiento a quien cruzara la colour line determinada por ellos. Los riots, en cambio, eran ataques generales a la comunidad negra. El objetivo de estos actos de violencia es generar miedo entre los negros para indicarles donde deben estar, cosa que es lograda, pues se hacen tan frecuentes que hay un cambi o en la polà ­tica federal. En 1896 tras un fallo de la Corte Suprema, Surgen escuelas para blancos y negros por separado, indicando la secesià ³n ante las exigencias del Sur. El Fin de la Democracia Agraria En el medio siglo que siguià ³ a la Guerra Civil, la agricultura se vio sometida a una serie de conmociones. Primero, la guerra y su secuela destruyeron parcialmente el sistema de plantaciones y fomentaron los sistemas de prà ©stamo sobre la cosecha y de aparcerà ­a. En segundo lugar, la apertura de las Altas Planicies y del Oeste redujo las granjas del Medio Oeste y del Este//Una tercera conmocià ³n fue el rpido crecimiento de los mercados mundiales y de la competencia mundial//En cuarto lugar//la repercusià ³n de nueva maquinaria, nuevas cosechas y nuevas tà ©cnicas . Indudablemente, la base de la economà ­a Norteamericana trastabillaba, o bien, se encontraba en medio de una transicià ³n. La crisis producida entre los aà ±os 1873 y 1896 produjo un cambio en la economà ­a mundial. Miles de empresas mueren, otras luchan por sobrevivir adaptndose a las nuevas formas de produccià ³n, fusionndose y generando corporaciones. Las empresas que superan la crisis son aquellas que se diversifican, toman la velocidad y productividad del nuevo mercado. El capitalismo competitivo muere para dar lugar al capitalismo corporativo. Martin Sklar explica: El ascenso del capitalismo corporativo se basà ³ en su adaptacià ³n a los capitales ms pequeà ±os, la adaptacià ³n de estos à ºltimos, y en menor medida la adaptacià ³n de una clase trabajadora cambiante . El Surgimiento de los Trust permite que los bienes sean baratos y que, consecuentemente, aumente el consumo. El hecho de operar en el tramo creciente de la curva de rendimientos, adems de utilizar las economà ­as de escala, hacen de los trust empresas con alta rentabilidad. Surgen, a partir de los trust, departament stores, donde el consumidor encontraba todo la que querà ­a en una sola tienda, la venta por correo y las chain stores, tiendas que se establecà ­an en suburbios para comodidad del cliente. A raà ­z de esta nueva economà ­a, Surgen las revueltas agrarias. Los granjeros, fuertemente endeudados con los banqueros del Norte, piden devaluacià ³n o que se tome la polà ­tica del patrà ³n plata en lugar del patrà ³n oro, ya que se habà ­a encontrado un yacimiento en las Rocky-Mountains. Los campesinos ven representados sus intereses con el Surgimiento de un nuevo partido: el Partido Populista, que basa su polà ­tica en el patrà ³n plata y la emisià ³n de billetes. Unidos al Partido Demà ³crata, proponen a Bryan como presidente. A pesar de perder las elecciones, ganadas por el republicano McKinley, terminan las revueltas agrarias por haber terminado la crisis. Los farmers se transforman en un engranaje ms de la sociedad de consumo. El trust comienza a ser peligroso, y en un intento de solucionarlo se dicta una ley antimonopà ³lica. Tras el asesinato de McKinley en manos de un anarquista, bajo el gobierno de Theodore Roosevelt, se proponen soluciones al problema de los trust. La solucià ³n ms adecuada parecà ­a ser la de Wilson: debà ­a haber un mercado libre, pero su formacià ³n debà ­a estar controlada por el Estado. No se sabà ­a cul serà ­a el destino de los trust, pero lo que sà ­ se sabà ­a es que la democracia americana habà ­a cambiado radicalmente. La democracia agraria habà ­a muerto, para dar lugar a la democracia corporativa. Conclusià ³n With Liberty and Justice for All. When we compare the individuals of the same variety or sub-variety of our older cultivated plants and animals, one of the first points which strikes us is, that they generally differ more from each other than do the individuals of any variety in a state of nature. And if we reflect on the vast diversity of the plants and animals which have beencultivated, and which have varied during all ages under the most different climates and treatment, we are driven to conclude that this great variability is due to our domestic productions having raised under conditions of life not so uniform as, and somewhat different from, those to which the parent species had been exposed under nature. Charles Darwin, Origin of Species. Se podrà ­a decir que una colonia, al pasar a ser independiente, vuelve a una suerte de estado de naturaleza. A partir de allà ­, puede tomar dos caminos. Un camino es el que Thomas Hobbes, en su libro Leviathan brinda como solucià ³n, y consiste en adoptar una forma de gobierno fuerte para tratar de evitar ese estado natural, lo que serà ­a como volver a las colonias, es decir, volver a ser domà ©sticos. El segundo camino es el que indica John Locke, y es el camino por el que optà ³ Estados Unidos. Con teorà ­as mas conservadoras o ms progresistas, Estados Unidos luego de la independencia mantuvo una idea fija: la democracia. Demà ³cratas o Republicanos, nunca se dudo del gobierno del pueblo a pesar de las crisis sufridas y las paradojas que brinda esta democracia. Y esta participacià ³n polà ­tica del individuo Norteamericano lo hace sentir importante, siempre va a creer en su evolucià ³n.  ¡Y cà ³mo no va a creer, si es un ciudadano Norteamericano! A principios del siglo XX, la democracia concebida por Estados Unidos transmuta, la democracia agraria se transforma en una democracia corporativa. 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