Hawthorne and Poe an Example of the Topic Personal Essays by

Hawthorne and Poe by Expert Hyperwriter | 19 Dec 2016 The works of Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe are among the most recognizable in American literature because of their haunting mood and the disturbing, sad, sometimes dreadful feelings they evoke. But whereas Hawthorne was deeply concerned with the dark secrets of the human soul, his characters constantly finding themselves in the swirl of ethical debate, Poe made no such pretensions. While Hawthorne was a moralist who wrestled with sin and evil, Poe was a skillful craftsman who gave life to the phantasms that dwelt in the realm of his imagination. By analyzing some of their more popular works in this essay, we shall compare and contrast their use of perversion, mystery, and horror or the symbols thereof and to what extent they focus themselves on the nature of evil and sin. Need essay sample on "Hawthorne and Poe" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown probes the psychology of Puritan Salems witchcraft frenzy to offer insights into the moral complexity of human nature (Modugno). At dusk, Goodman Brown starts on a journey to the forest, passing through a dreary road, darkened by all the gloomiest trees of the forest to where the witches of the village congregate at midnight. Goodman Brown echoes the common mans dread when passing through such paths: What if the devil himself should be at my elbow! And sure enough, there appeared an old man with the twisted staff which bore the likeness of a great black snake. People Frequently Tell Us: I'm not in the mood to write my essay now. I don't have the time Specialists recommend: College Papers For Sale The setting in itself does not terrify, nor does the twisted staff: the realization that the entire village has fallen prey to witchcraft including the minister and Goody Cloyse who taught Goodman Brown catechism, and perhaps, his own wife Faith herself - does. When Goodman Brown finds Faiths ribbon in the forest, he is maddened with despair, crying: There is no good on earth; and sin is but a name. Come, devil; for to thee is this world given. Losing all hope, he plunges headlong into the forest. Yet all is not lost: while the leader of the fiend worshippers declares that Evil is the nature of mankind. Evil must be your only happiness, Goodman Brown and Faith were the only pair, it seemed, who were yet hesitating on the verge of wickedness in this dark world. Before the mark of baptism was laid on their foreheads, Goodman Brown implores Faith to look up to heaven, and resist the wicked one. Whether it was all a dream or heaven intervened is not known, but the next morning Goodman Brown finds the town of Salem as it was before. But the experience had changed him: he now looks upon everyone with distrust. He could not listen to the singing of psalms during the Sabbath services. When the minister spoke from the pulpit with power and fervid eloquence . . .Goodman Brown turned pale, dreading lest the roof should thunder down upon the gray blasphemer and his hearers. Poes Ulalume also speaks of a lonesome journey into the ghoul-haunted woodland of Weir: Here, once, through an alley Titanic/Of cypress I roamed with my soul/Of cypress with Psyche my soul. Psyche begs him to fly, seeing a star which she mistrust, but the poet/narrator prevails upon her to continue, until they arrive at a legended tomb that of the lost Ulalume. The poet/narrator cries in anguish upon realizing that it was on that very night a year before that he brought a dread burden down here. In this poem, Poe makes use of symbols (leaves that were withering, crisped, and sere; a miraculous crescent with a duplicate horn, the dim lake of Auber, the misty mid-region of Weir) only to set the mood, which is one of melancholy and dread, not to arouse any inner struggle about moral values. A reader accustomed to look for a moral in a story will find The Cask of Amontillado, a gothic tale of revenge written by Edgar Allan Poe, devoid of any allusion to conscience.The narrators only concern is to execute his vengeance in cold blood and escape unpunished. But here is an intriguing note: the narrator assumes the reader knows the nature of his (the authors) soul. Of course we do not know until we come to the climax, where the narrator (Montresor) entombs his friend Fortunato alive in a granite wall in the catacombs. Could it be that Poe believed every human soul was potentially capable of unbelievable cruelty? If so, he and Hawthorne have at least a thing in common: a Freudian belief in the latent animal nature of man. (Incidentally, Melville, a friend of Hawthorne, describes, in Moby Dick an angel as nothing but a shark well-governed). In The Tell-Tale Heart, Poe again narrates a murder most foul, provoked by what the killer perceived as the victims vulture eye. Here Poe describes from the murderers point of view how he committed the deed, and why he finally broke up, telling searchers to tear up the planks upon being tormented by the beating of the victims hideous heart. The narrators anguish is not caused by knowing he had committed a grave wrong: he is only concerned only with fear of punishment, like Montresor in The Cask of Amontillado. The constant allusion in Hawthornes works about the dark secrets concealed in the human heart also appears in The Ministers Black Veil, where the town parson surprises his parishioners by wearing a black crepe to hide his face. Till his last breath he refuses to remove the veil, resolutely clutching at it when it was to be forcibly taken away. His final words ring as an indictment against the hypocrisy of men and society. Why do you tremble at me alone? . . .Tremble also at each other! When . . .man does not vainly shrink from the eye of his Creator, loathsomely treasuring up the secret of his sin; then deem me a monster, for the symbol beneath which I have lived, and die! I look around me, and, lo! on every visage a Black Veil! The black veil may be a symbol of sin, against which the stern moralists of Hawthornes day zealously guarded their congregations. Hawthorne probably saw through the Puritans impeccable religious conduct, or perhaps imagined that despite their avowals of faith they harbored sins known only to themselves. It is possible that Hawthornes works are an echo of the powerful sermons delivered by the likes of Cotton Mather in colonial America, making the sinners cringe in fear of hellish damnation. Rappacinis Daughter, another Hawthorne tale, tells of a young woman, Beatrice, who was exposed by her father from childhood to the flowers of a gorgeous shrub, inhaling its poisonous fumes until she became immune to it and possessed of the ability to kill by her breathe anyone who comes to her. To Dr. Rappacini, this made her terrible as she was beautiful. He chides his daughter for accusing him of having made her life miserable. Wouldst thou then, he says, have preferred the condition of a weak woman, exposed to all evil, and capable of none? Beatrice drinks the antidote which kills her. In this tale, Hawthorne explores the complexity of human nature. The poisonous flower may symbolize many things. Its outward appearance of beauty that secretly kills can be taken as the material things most people crave but instead of happiness bring them sorrow. Whereas Hawthorne wrote from the viewpoint of the conscience-stricken Puritan, Kennedy believes that Poes works were influenced by the violence of that period of American history: Writing in the wake of Charles Brockden Brown, Catherine Maria Sedgwick, and James Fennimore Cooper, all of whom depicted episodes of bloody cruelty, Poe was yet the first important American writer to foreground violence and to prove its psychological origin (4). Through the works of Poe, the reader can see his darkly passionate sensibilities: a tormented and sometimes neurotic obsession with death and violence and overall appreciation for the beautiful yet tragic mysteries of life (Merriman). To Hawthorne, the symbols of perversion, mystery, and horror in his works were but instruments to bring into focus, despite its aura of light and beauty, the horrible nature of sin. WORKS CITED Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Ministers Black Veil. 16 April 2007 Young Goodman Brown. Fictions. Ed. Joseph Trimmer. Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace College, 1998. 614. Rappacinis Daughter. Fictions. Ed. Joseph Trimmer. Fort Worth:Harcourt Brace College, 1998. 619. Kennedy, Gerald. A Historical Guide to Edgar Allan Poe. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2000. 4 -5. Merriman, C.D. Edgar Allan Poe. 12 April 2007 http://www.online-literature.com/poe/> Modugno, Joseph R. The Salem Witchcraft Hysteria of 1692 and Young Goodman Brown. 12 April 2007. Poe, Edgar Allan. Ulalume 16 April 2007.

Mental Health Essay Example

Mental Health Essay Example Mental Health Paper Mental Health Paper Essay Topic: Eva Luna within an individual and controls their mind and body. However in contrast to this Hippocrates (460-355bc) believed in a biological cause of mental illness. His belief about the treatment of mental illness extended to a kind of brain pathology that was to be treated with proper diet, drink and abstinence from sexual activity (Davison Neale, 1997). The Greek concept of mental illness was well spread through to the Roman Empire. Platos (428-348 B. C. ) regarded mind as a cause of madness. He believed that the cause of mental illness is a persons ignorance of a psyche; the force that kept the human being alive; which leads to the self-deception (Mora, 1985). It was at that point that a psychological viewpoint of mental illness was also presented. During this era many thought that both mind and body was a cause of mental illness but, unfortunately both approaches could not be synchronised, so the mind and body position went separately through this period. During the middle ages the Hippocratic viewpoint of mental illness was gaining prominence with many doctors believing the causes of mental illness to have a biological basis. Constantinus Africanus (1020-1087) founder of the first medical school founded in Salerno, claimed melancholia was a result of an excess of bile causing an imbalance to the system of the body. (Mora, 1985) Later during the renaissance period (15th-16th century) there had been a period of witch-mania, which led to Pope Innocent the 8th sending monks to be the inquisitors of witches. From this the Malleus Maleficarun (1486) â€Å"the witchs hammer was published serving as the instruction manual for the inquisitors (Romm Friedman, 1994). During this time the mentally ill were among those persecuted and witchcraft or possession was declared as the cause of their illness. This witchcraft hysteria pushed the biological theories on mental illness backwards as those who favoured applying a biological theory to the illness feared the punishment of the inquisition. It wasnt until the 18th century that a major shift from the supernatural explanation to clinical explanation of mental illness happened. This was through a complete rejection of witchcraft and various other scientific accomplishments in other areas. Legislation was created by the government to â€Å"deal† with what they considered as undesirables leading to the birth of mad houses for the purpose of detaining individuals. Acts such as The Vagrancy Act (1744) and the Mad Houses Act (1744) were created during this time. From these newly formed acts care for the mentally ill was based upon institutionalised care which saw the building of large asylums used to house the mentally ill using the medical model of treatment. The medical model is based on a biological theory with the aim to find medical treatments for diagnosed symptoms; this model treats the body as a very complex mechanism as it attempted to offer physical pathological explanations to mental illness. Mental illness was regarded as being ill and requiring medical treatment and intervention. According to Davison Neale, an important contribution to the biological aetiology was Louis Pasteur’s establishment of the germ theory of disease, which claims that disease is caused by infection of the body by minute organisms. This theory provides an excellent basis to develop the aetiology of specific mental disorders due to viral diseases. The changes in physical pathology are believed to result in symptomatic changes of mood, behaviour, perception and thoughts that characterise the medical diagnosis of mental illnesses. The field of Psychiatry uses the tool of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to make diagnoses. It lists over 200 mental health conditions and the criteria required for each one in making the diagnosis. Treatments for mental illness through the medical model are based upon reliving of symptoms through medical interventions and providing a cure. These medical interventions would be delivered in medical settings such as hospitals and involve treatments such as: E. C. T. and medication. These treatments are aimed to cure the symptoms and behaviour associated with mental illness. The medication aims to combat the chemical imbalance that the medical model has attributed to the cause of most mental illnesses. Schizophrenia is one of the most commonly diagnosed severe mental illnesses with the most widely used form of treatment is the use of anti-psychotic medication. Anti-psychotic drugs are believed to work by changing the activity of chemicals that transmit messages in the brain. The chemical they work on is dopamine. All antipsychotic drugs can cause side effects but these can be different for each patient. The medical model tends to define recovery in negative terms; symptoms and complaints need to be eliminated, illnesses need to be cured or removed. Patients need to be relieved of their conditions and returned to their pre morbid, healthy, or more accurately not-ill state (Pratt, 2007) The Mental Health Act (1983) defines individuals suffering with mental illness as patients. The Act deals with people who have a mental disorder; it contains the effect of detention and covers the interests of a persons health and safety. This act supports the medical model by determining that treatment is needed for the persons disorder implying the same basic philosophy of the medical model of diagnosis, treatment, and cure. The social model examines our relationship and the environment. It was developed in response to the medical model and the impact it had on individual’s life. The social model provides a different perspective, it does not concern with how bad a person’s illness is. It establishes that society erects barriers that prevent people, in turn restricting their opportunities. The philosophy of the social model is to rid society of these barriers, rather than relying on curing the person. The social models primary focus is being on family and group relationships. It considers the social class, risk, vulnerability increase. Early life experiences, peer group, education and sexual experiences are also considered important. The social model of care aims to give other reasons for mental illness, in that it is not just biological. It gives explanation through the environmental factors of life. The social model philosophy is that illness is caused by the society in which we live and is not the fault of an individual person, or an inevitable consequence of their limitations. Recovery is a life orientation that highlights the potential of people with severe mental illness to seek increasingly productive and meaningful lives through activities of their own choosing. The Psychological model is based upon the academic field of psychology. It attempts to explain mental illness through study of the human mind and behaviour. Psychology applies knowledge from the field of study to aspects of human activity, including the problems of individuals daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. Psychologys primary concern is the interaction of mental processes and behaviour and not simply the biological of neutral processes themselves. In 1879 Wilhelm founded a laboratory at the Leipzig University in Germany specifically to focus on the study of psychology. William James later published his 1890 book, Principles of Psychology which laid many of the foundations for the sorts of questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. The psychological model of care is split into three areas of theory. * Behavioural: inappropriate behaviour learned from negative life experiences, Behavioural Therapies/approaches focus on the need to re-learn more adaptive and appropriate patterns. * Cognitive: perception and interpretation of the world. * Psychoanalytical: Fixation at one of life’s earlier stages. Behaviourism is the psychological theory of the study of behaviour. It rejects the idea that internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals can be studied scientifically. Behaviourism was the dominant model in psychology for much of the 20th century, largely because of the creation and successful application of conditioning theories as scientific models of behaviour. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behaviour. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Psychoanalytical Sigmund Freud, who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had invented and applied a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freuds understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and introspection, but was particularly focused on resolving mental distress and psychopathology. Freuds theories became very well-known, probably because they tackled subjects such as sexuality and repression as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Although Freuds theories are of virtually no interest today in psychology departments, his application of psychology to clinical work has been very influential. (Jarvis, 2000) Psychotherapy treatments involve a range of techniques which use dialogue and communication and are intended to improve the mental health of the individual. Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation; though some also use various other forms of communication such as writing, art work or touch. More often than not psychotherapy involves a therapist and client on a one to one basis or as group. The therapy addresses specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in meeting personal goals. Treatment of more everyday problems is referred to as counselling but the term is used interchangeably with psychotherapy. Psychotherapeutic interventions are often designed to treat the client in the medical model, although not all psychotherapeutic approaches follow the model of illness/cure. Some practitioners, such as humanistic schools, see themselves in an educational or helper role. Mental health care practice has now evolved into a mixture of the three models of care and is referred to as the bio psychosocial approach. The bio psychosocial approaches to treatment are broadly speaking holistic. Biological psychological and social factors are all incorporated into individual patient assessment. The bio psychosocial model of medicine is a way of looking at the mind and body of a patient as two important systems that are interlinked. The bio psychosocial model is also a technical term for the popular concept of the mind-body connection. This is in contrast to the traditional biomedical model of medicine. The bio psychosocial model draws a distinction between the actual pathological processes that cause disease, and the patients perception of their health and the effects on it, called the illness. As well as a separate existence of disease and illness, the bio psychosocial model states that the workings of the body can affect the mind, and the workings of the mind can affect the body. (Gilbert. P, 2002) stated that: At its best the bio psychosocial approach is holistic but is also more than that. The bio psychosocial approach addresses the complexity of interactions between different domains of functioning and argues that it is the interaction of domains that illuminate important processes. Gilbert, P (2002). Government policies and guidelines dictating the standards of care for the mentally ill now give consideration to the bio psychosocial approach to care. The National Service Framework for mental health was launched in 1999 and sets out how mental health services will be planned, delivered and monitored. The NSF lists seven standards that set targets for the mental health care of adults aged up to 65. These standards span five areas: health promotion and stigma, primary care and access to specialist services, needs of those with severe and enduring mental illness, carers needs, and suicide reduction are also considered. A primary concern of anti-psychiatry is that an individuals degree of adherence to communally, or majority, held values may be used to determine that persons level of mental health. Other organisations such as Mind Freedom International and World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry maintain that psychiatrists exaggerate the evidence of medication and minimize the evidence of adverse drug reaction. An article published through the anti-psychiatry movement stated that: â€Å"Psychiatry should be abolished as a medical speciality because medical school education is not needed nor even helpful for doing counselling or so-called psychotherapy, because the perception of mental illness as a biological entity is mistaken, because psychiatrys treatments  other than counselling or psychotherapy (primarily drugs and electroshock) Hurt rather than help people, because non-psychiatric physicians are better able than psychiatrists to treat real brain disease, and because non-psychiatric physicians acceptance of psychiatry as a medical specialty is a poor reflection on the medical profession as a whole (Stevens. L, 2006). The medical profession does not have a precise understanding of why some individuals develop a psychiatric disorder and some do not. Some have developed a general theory to explain the causes of these disorders and their course over time called the stress vulnerability model. This theory was originally introduced as a means to explain some of the underlying causes of schizophrenia by Zubin Spring, (1977). Therefore Psychiatric disorders have a biological basis, but environmental factors can influence their course over time. The stress-vulnerability model points out that a positive outcome of a psychiatric disorder is more likely if environmental stress is minimized or managed well, medication is taken as prescribed, and alcohol and drug abuse are avoided. Conclusion Through the evolution of mental health care it has been made clear that the three separate models of medical, social and psychological approaches of care are not each in their own right complimentary to the holistic needs of individuals suffering with diagnoses of mental illness. Pressure from such groups as the Anti- Psychiatry movement is helping to change attitudes and perceptions about mental health. Critics of psychiatry generally do not dispute the notion that some people have emotional or psychological problems, or that some psychotherapies do not work for a problem. They do usually disagree with psychiatry on the source of these problems; the appropriateness of characterising these problems as illness and on what the proper management options are. Mental health care is delivered with assessments and needs of the individual being assessed through a collaborative approach of Effective Care Co-ordination. ECC assesses individual’s needs through the bio psychosocial philosophy i. e. : medical assessment, social needs and or psychological interventions. All mental health service users have a range of needs which no one treatment service or agency can meet alone; this system of ECC allows a service user access to the most relevant response. Hopefully providing the individual the necessary tenets of care they require. References: Davison, G. C. Neale, J. M. (1997) Abnormal psychology (7th Ed. ). New York, John Wiley Sons Inc. Department of Health. (1999) National Service Framework, Mental Health. The Stationary Office Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth edition. Copyright 2000 American Psychiatric Association. Gilbert, P.(2002) Clinical Psychology. Understanding the bio psychosocial approach: Conceptualisation. Kingsway Hospital, Derby. Flanagan, C. (2003) Psychology for AS: AQA Specification: The Complete Companion, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes Ltd | | | | | | | | | Bottom of Form Mora,G. (1985) History of Psychiatry. Baltimore, M. D. : Williams Wilkins. Mental Health Act 1983. [Online] Available: dh. gov. uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4005756 [Accessed 3rd February 2010] Stevens, L. Why psychiatry should be abolished as a medical speciality. [Online] Available: http://antipsychiatry. org/abolish. htm. [Accessed 23rd February 2010] Sue, D et al. (1990) Understanding abnormal behaviour (3rd Ed. ). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. The 1832 Madhouse Act and the Metropolitan Commission in Lunacy from 1832 [Online] Available: http://studymore. org. uk/3s. htm [Accessed 25th February 2010] UPIAS [Online] Available: gmcdp. com/UPIAS. html [Accessed 6thMarch 2010] Zubin, J. The aim of this essay is to explore and explain how differing theoretical approaches used by mental health practitioners can affect the way care is provided. This will be achieved through examining the influences of each model and their effects upon the practice of mental health care. Some historical information will be provided to give explanation of the background into the evolution of social and moral perspectives that have shaped mental health care practice throughout the ages. There are 3 principle theoretical approaches used in practice today those being the biological, psychological and social models. People who exhibited behaviour that deviated from what society considered the norm would be considered to have an evil mind. Treatment during these times would be conducted in the forms of spiritualistic ceremonies and crude forms of brain surgery, (trepanning) done by the shaman. The motive for this practice would be to allow evil spirits to be released. It has been suggested that stone-age cave dwellers may have treated behaviour disorders with this treatment of trepanation. (Sue et al, 1990). It appears inevitable that they explained mental illness through a non-scientific cause, because they had not developed scientific techniques to provide a materialistic cause. The supernatural concept of mental illness still existed throughout ancient times with many civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks and the Roman Empire believing the cause to be one of a supernatural reason. It was with the ancient Egyptians came the first signs of changes to the treatment of the mentally ill. Egyptians like the early Stone Age societies mainly regarded mental illness as magical or religious in nature; however their society which was obsessed with life after death meant that the health of the mind or soul played an essential part in ones overall health. There is evidence to suggest that an ancient temple near Saqqara was being used as a rudimentary hospital for the treatment of the mentally ill which could mean that Egyptian society with its fixation on the health of the soul has the first recorded evidence of a mental healthcare system for their society. (Flanigan, 2003) According to Davison Neale, the Greek philosophy of mental illness was a doctrine of demonology that an evil being, such as the devil dwells

Jack the Giant Slayer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Jack the Giant Slayer - Research Paper Example Jack the Giant Slayer is an adventure film of 2013 previously named Jack the Giant Killer. This adventure film based on fables â€Å"Jack the Bean stalker† and â€Å"Jack the Giant killer â€Å". The director of the film is Bryan Singer and the screenplay is by Christopher McQuarrie, Darren Lemke and Dan Studney. The stars of the epic films are Evan McGregor, Ian McShane, and Nicholas Hoult. Billy Nighy, StanelyTucci and Eleanor Tomlinson are also stars in the film. The film depicts the yarn of a youthful farmhand and a princess (IMDb.com, Inc. , 2013). Style and Directing Jack is the farmhand who rescues the young princess he has fallen in love with from giants.  Work on the film began as early as 2005. In 2005, Daren Lemke hatched the idea of the film and development of the film began. In January 2009, Caruso as the director started to work on the film, however on September that year Singer took Caruso’s place. Principal photography of the film begun in Norfolk, S omerset and Gloucestershire in April 2011, all these locations are in England. The premiere of the film was on 26 February 2013. Storytelling    The power of storytelling in the film, whereby the film depicts a bedtime story that giants wandered about England consuming and crushing anyone on their way. After recurring wars between human beings and the giants, a permanent solution hatched. This solution was a powerful crown that possessed magic. The wearer of this crown who was King Eric could control and tame the giants. King Erik sent away the giants back to their homeland of Gargantua. After sometime, King Erik died and he is buried together with beanstalks and the magical crown. Time passes and the legend of King Erik is becomes a narration to children Isabelle the princess and Jack a peasant as a bedtime story. Both Isabelle and Jack grow to become young attractive youths. While Isabelle runs from a forced marriage to Lord Roderick, she bumps into Jack and they develop a bond to each other. While Isabelle is with Jack at his place, suddenly a magic bean plants itself and grows to take Isabelle to the clouds, to Gargantua where she remains stranded.    If one watches the TV spots and trailers of Jack the Giant slayer, they will discover that the marketing is quite poor relative to the movie. The action sequence is not as creative and flowing as the legend itself. Bryan Singer the director of the movie seems more concerned with old traditional story telling than the targeted audience.     The movie has gently tried to twist the original and much familiar story. Isabelle and Jack both have a good childhood since they have parents who read for them. The movie depicts the importance of storytelling in child upbringing and development. Jack the Giant Slayer, as most fables are full of good life lessons. Life lessons come in the stories of scary villains, dangerous adventures, villains and courageous heroes who challenge them. Fairy tells highlight virtue s of self-sacrifice and bravery. Storytelling shows the evils of selfishness, jealousy and greed. The mother of the princess uses storytelling to motivate her young daughter to emulate the heroes in the fairy tells and to practice good things in the world.   We can attribute Jacks attitude to the stories he grew up listening. For instance, his heroism and bravery is because he emulates the heroes in the stories.   Acting Acting is not impressive. The actors are Nicholas Hoult acting as Jack the farmhand, Eleanor Tomlinson acting as Isabelle the youthful princess (Goodykoontz& Jacobs, 2011). Other actors are Stanley Tucci acting as Lord Roderick the Kings adviser, Ian McShane acting as King the princess father and Billy Nighy as Fallon the leader of the giants. The acting is poor, Nicholas Hoult who is acting as Jack the peasant has an odd haircut and he is just an average actor. Elenor Tomlinson as Isabelle the princess is very bland and not particular captivating or useful in

Global Leadership and Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Leadership and Managment - Essay Example The dissatisfaction amid the Cuban public generated a productive environment for Castro to get control as a leading actor. His concerned behavior toward the subjugated quickly made him a role model within his country. Castro created close associations with the Soviet Union, â€Å"nationalized the local industry† (Ramonet and Castro, 2009), detained or executed enemies, and formed an environment of eternal stress with the United States of America. There was an obvious and passionate link between Castro, his adherents, and the state of affairs when he took leadership. The contemporary restlessness of the Cuban public toward the administration made it convenient for Castro to get control as a rescuer. Castro showed a transformational leadership approach, as he was capable to persuade his adherents’ standards, moral values, principles, as well as long-standing objectives on a profound affectionate level (Coltman, 2005). Transformational leaders express the difficulties with in the existing arrangement and have a persuasive image of what a fresh society or group could be; Castro was capable of influencing his adherents to bring about more than what was generally anticipated from them. Another former great leader was Martin Luther King, Jr. â€Å"He was raised in the contemporary, conventional way of segregation between Blacks and Whites† (King and Carson, 2001). King’s best accomplishment was his leadership during the ‘great protest rally’ within Washington, DC on August 28, 1963. His objective was to support the development of the â€Å"Beloved Community† (King and Carson, 2001), foreseeing a fresh social structure in which all sorts of individuals as well as groups would reside together in harmony and uniformly share the wealth of ‘God’s creation’. He consequently utilized his brand new authorities to deal with prejudice. The rapport between King, his adherents, and the state of affairs, was appare nt. There was ethnic separation. Blacks wanted a compelling, powerful, dominant leader to lead them and bond them for official development. King was mainly attacked â€Å"as their leader without initially even wanting it: he just happened to be at the right place at the right time† (Phillips, 2000). Due to this, he is considered as a citizen leader. â€Å"Citizen Leaders generally do not select leadership† (Phillips, 2000). They do not even try to find it, and they are not provided with conventional types of appreciation. Martin Luther King Jr. showed motivational leadership; he encouraged the lives of a number of his adherents nationally. All through his leadership, King showed idealistic obligation to peacefulness, constantly attempting to enlighten young black individuals why they must abstain from self-protection in front of dangerous aggression by Klansmen in addition to â€Å"white vigilantes† (Phillips, 2000) who were usually in union with legal authoriti es. References Coltman, L. (2005). The Real Fidel Castro. Yale University Press. King, M. L., and Carson, C. (2001). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. Grand Central Publishing. Phillips, D. T. (2000). Martin Luther Kin

Definition And Importance Of Communication English Language Essay

Definition And Importance Of Communication English Language Essay Communication is like a bridge between people, the way in which it happens depending very much on the art of communication, the creativity of the human beings, the message of the communication and on the context in which it takes place. Because of its complexity, communication has been defined in many ways, some definitions being broad and inclusive, others restrictive (Littlejohn, Foss, 2008:3): The process that links discontinuous parts of the living world to one another (Ruesch, 1957:462), A system for communicating information and order (Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1986:460), A participative, two-way sharing of understanding, commitment and purpose, leading to appropriate action (Robbins et al, 2000:633). Communication is an interdisciplinary concept as it is approached from different fields such as linguistics, psychology, ecology, mathematics, etc., enabling us to transmit and share facts, ideas, data, feelings, attitudes. It plays a key role in all the fields of activity, therefore it should be effective so as to be an element of success for every relationship, organization, meeting, research, etc. Still, there are many barriers to effective communication (e.g. language, inappropriate choice of words/channel, different cultural backgrounds, difference in attitudes and values, etc.) which lead to misunderstandings and failure in interaction. Communication is not based just on a simple verbal interaction between people, but also on the body language and the facial expression which are also means of communicating a message. More than that, communication and technology have developed so much lately that we can even speak of forms of communication that move from the traditional human fo rms toward impersonal communication with entities to which we cannot transmit feelings or experiences, e.g. banking networks, computers, phones, etc. and we can also speak not only of human or impersonal communication but also of animal communication. However, if we are to consider a simple model of communication which states that it is a process of information transfer from a sender to a receiver via a medium, the process starting from an inner state of the sender which produces the transfer of the signal and ending with an inner state of the receiver when the signal is delivered (ShannonWeaver, 1949), we can ask ourselves if this simple model is suitable for communication in general, be it human, impersonal or animal. In their book Animal Signals Maynard Smith and Harper (2003:3) defined the signal as: any act or structure which alters the behaviour of other organisms, which evolved because of that effect, and which is effective because the receivers response has also evolved. Here, the signal is understood as having a corresponding response, a modification of behaviour. Still, it may fail sometimes, for example because of poor design or noise. On the contrary, communication means a successful accomplishment of the signalling act, so there is no such concept as failed communication. Thus, it is this possible failure that makes the clear distinction between signalling and communication. In the previous definition, there is no reference to the notion of information but this does not mean that signalling does not use it. If we think of both impersonal and animal signalling, the idea that the signal carries information is implicit, even Maynard Smith and Harper (1995:305) stated that: it is not evolut ionarily stable for the receiver to alter its behaviour unless, on average, the signal carries information of value to it. Hence, information is carried but the relevance of the signal is important as the receiver may ignore the signalling behaviour if the signal is of no use to him and has nothing to gain from it. An important difference between human communication and animal signals (maybe we could even think of this difference when referring to impersonal devices signalling) is the presence of language. People are able to communicate with the help of language, having the power of combining and creating different messages by using symbols, words and their creativity. More than that, people have thoughts, desires, beliefs being able to show and recognize their intentions to communicate, they may use different stimuli to attract the receivers attention and to engage in activities with similar goals and objectives. Animals, on the other hand, have no intentional system (Davidson, 198 2) and none of the above mentioned human traits. The speech acts mark also a difference between human communication and animal/impersonal signals. The communicative acts help us not only to communicate but also to influence each other in various ways. In conclusion, if we take into consideration the particularities of human communication and the limitations of animal/impersonal signalling, we can notice that there are similarities but also differences, thus it would be difficult to say that a simple model would cover all cases. The general terms of human communication being established, we turn to examine other important aspects/models of successful and effective (human) communication. Characteristics of communication Two-way process: The two-way process refers to a communication where the participants take turns in being speaker-listener, writer-reader, the process being complete only if there is a feedback from the receiver to the sender on how well the message is understood. Verbal and nonverbal: Verbal communication uses sounds and language to express ideas and concepts while non-verbal communication uses gestures, touch and body language to send and receive wordless cues between people. Language familiarity: Effective communication means that the sender must use a language the receiver is familiar with, otherwise the communication will be a failure. Interest in the message: The receiver has to be interested in the subject the sender has to convey, so that the communication process is successful. Perception: There should be a consensus between the message that is sent and the one that is received. The intended meaning has to be the same for an effective communication. Continuity: Communication is continuous because in everything we do, we have to convey or receive information, the exchange of information being a continuous process. Formal or informal: Formal communication conforms to established professional rules and standards while informal communication is casual, unofficial and does not conform to any regulations. Components of communication Communication becomes effective when it achieves the desired response from the receiver. These are the components by means of which communication can be effective: Context every communication starts with a context and is affected by the context in which it occurs. The context could be cultural, social, physical, etc. and it is the sender who chooses the message to communicate within such a context. Sender/encoder This is the person who conveys the message. He/she uses words, visual aids or body language to send the message and produced the desires response, the verbal or nonverbal symbols chosen being essential for a correct interpretation of the message by the receiver. Message The message is the essence of what the sender wants to communicate and it is the starting point of the communication process because the sender starts by planning the message he/she wants to transmit. Medium It is the channel which is used to conduct the communicative act. It is essential to choose the right medium in order to have an effective communication. Receiver/decoder This is the person to whom the message is addressed, the understanding of the message depending also on the relationship between the sender and the receiver, but also on the reliance that the encoder has on the decoder. Feedback Feedback is very important for the communication process as the sender has the possibility of analysing the efficacy of the message and to understand if the message has been interpreted correctly. Models of communication There are many code models for understanding the communication process and it would be difficult to consider all of them in this paper, therefore we are going to consider only some significant models which serve the purpose of understanding the process of communication. Aristotle The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first to give a model of communication. Incorporating few elements, his model is suitable for public speaking (www.eou.edu). SPEAKER MESSAGE LISTENER According to this model, the speaker/sender has the most important role in communication, taking complete charge, carefully preparing and presenting his thoughts in order to influence the listener/receiver. Aristotles model is the most common model for public speaking where the message is sent to influence the receivers and make them act accordingly. Shannon and Weaver (1949) Claude E. Shannon was an electrical engineer and mathematician who published a paper which referred to a theory of probability for evaluating the success of electronic transmission of information, a concept which became known as the information/communication theory. His model was based on five constituents involved in the process of communication: 1. An information source which produces a message or a sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiving terminal. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 2. A transmitter which operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 3. The channel is merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ During transmission, or at one of the terminals, the signal may be perturbed by noise.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 4. The receiver ordinarily performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter, reconstructing the message from the signal. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 5. The destination is the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended. (Shannon, 1948:380, 1949:4). In 1949 Shannon s theory was reviewed by Warren Weaver who actually extended the term communication, using it in a very broad sense and making the understanding of the theory easier for those who were not familiar with mathematics. Shannon and Weaver published a work together The Mathematical Theory of Communication which contributed significantly to the application of the communication theory within different fields. NOISE MESSAGE SOURCE TRANSMITTER CHANNEL RECEIVER DESTINATION Roman Jakobson (1960) Jakobsons model of the functions of language makes a distinction between six factors of communication that are necessary for the communication to take place: addresser, message, addressee, context, code and contact. The ADDRESSER sends a MESSAGE to the ADDRESSEE. To be operative, the message requires a CONTEXT referred to (referent in another, somewhat ambiguous, nomenclature), seizable by the addressee, and either verbal or capable of being verbalized; a CODE fully, or at least partially, common to the addresser and addressee (or in other words to the encoder and decoder of the message); and, finally, a CONTACT, a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to enter and stay in communication. (Jakobson, 1960:353). CONTEXT MESSAGE ADDRESSER CONTACT ADDRESSEE CODE According to Jakobson (1960) each of these factors determines a different function of language (termed by him as referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual and poetic), each verbal message fulfilling more than one of these functions. M. A. K. Halliday (1978) David Crystal (2003) In A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics Crystal defines communication using a classic variant of the model of communication. Communication refers to the transmission of INFORMATION (a message) between a source and receiver using a signalling system: in linguistic contexts, source and receiver are interpreted in human terms, the system involved is a LANGUAGE, and the notion of response to (or acknowledgement of) the message becomes of crucial importance. In theory, communication is said to have taken place if the information received is the same as that sent (Crystal, 2003:85). INFORMATION SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEIVER RESPONSE MESSAGE COMPREHENSION Possible diagram of Crystals model The examples presented here prove the long existence of the different models, each of them having a pattern of development, a contribution and an influence on the process of communication. However, an important aspect of the communicative process is language which helps us to communicate, to actually convey the message to other individuals, to interact and create systems for communicating. In general linguistics, language is analysed as a formal system, Noam Chomsky (1975) referring to it as being innate, a biological necessity and a highly abstracted individual competence. Still, when communicating, people do not rely only on the rules of language as a formal system, but also on the environment, the social context and the knowledge they have of the topic. Even if linguists like Chomsky or Pinker claim that people are somehow wired to language, people also have the ability to become aware and to respond to the environmental cues when using the language. It is because of these abiliti es and reactions that language plays an important role in communication and has an impact on human interaction. Language performs many communicative functions, one of the main functions being the communication of information, and even if there have been many attempts to give some general rules for the main functions of language, the results have been inconsistent, this functional approach being less well documented (Brown and Yule, 1983:1). Brown and Yule used only two terms to refer to the main functions of language, the distinction being made between transactional language and interactional language, which actually correspond to the classifications representative/expressive found in Buhler (1934), referential/emotive (Jakobson, 1960), ideational/interpersonal (Halliday, 1970b) and descriptive/social-expressive (Lyons, 1977) . According to Brown and Yule (1983), transactional language is that language which is efficient, the speaker (or writer) having in mind the efficient transfer ence of information, the receiver having to get the message correctly, as there is no place for misinterpretation because of the terrible consequences that it may have, for example a teacher giving the wrong information to students at the beginning of an exam or a fireman misguiding his colleagues during a fire. Interactional language refers to the language used in everyday conversations or social relationships, the sociologists and sociolinguists being the ones concerned with the use of language to establish and maintain social relationships (Brown and Yule, 1983:3). Everyday conversations are more subject to interactional than transactional use of language, phrases like Terrible weather, isnt it. or Thats a nice shirt/blouse suggesting the speakers intention to develop a conversation and be friendly not his/her intention to convey a message. Conversational analysts such as Brown and Levinson (1978) believe that agreement and a common point of view are essential for this type of la nguage, repetition being one of the means by which agreement is emphasised. A distinction has to be made here between spoken language which is generally considered to be more interpersonal than informative, and written language which is considered to be primarily transactional. Spoken and written language are produced differently and with different effects. Spoken versus written language There are differences between the spoken and the written language which refer not only to the way that they are produced and to their effects, but also to their evolution and independence. Language is considered to be a natural ability, the capacity to acquire it being innate. Still, the views are different when referring to spoken or written language. There are many linguists who believe that written language is a human invention and not a natural ability. Darwin (1871) wrote about the instinct of speaking that we can observe even with little children while there is no such instinct as writing that can be observed with children. Saussure (1916) stated that writing exist only to represent speech, while Bloomfield (1933) claimed that writing is only a way in which speaking can be recorded, there being no such term as written language. Even if this view about writing has been sustained by many renowned linguists, it is not universally accepted. Linguists from the Prague Linguistic Circ le, such as Pulgram (1965) or Vachek (1973, 1989), view written language as an independent system equal to spoken language, the two systems mutually influencing each other .

Environmental Hazards Essay

If someone was to ask you, â€Å"What is an open dump? † What would you say? Would you know what to tell them? An open dump is abandoned piles of household garbage, bags of yard waste, appliances, old barrels, used tires, and demolition debris can threaten the health of wildlife, the environment, and humans. They can cause such health, environmental, and safety issues as fires or explosions, the inhalation of toxic gases, injuries to children playing in or around the dumpsites (I have personal experience of cutting my foot on broken glass as a child playing in an open dump), diseases carried by flies, rodents and mosquitos, and other hazards. Open Dumps, 1996 – 2011). Early Landfill Believe it or not, landfills go way back in history. Of course, back then they were called â€Å"garbage dumps. † For instance, early American settlers used to deal with their garbage by dumping it over the back fence, burying it in their back yards, or dumping it in rivers. They also would burn their garbage. (Amsel, 2005 – 2013). We can go even further back in history with this subject. Case in point: Did you know the cause of the bubonic plague (14th century) was too much garbage in the streets? Allow me to explain. The bubonic plague, also called, the â€Å"black death,† spread through Africa, Asia, nd Europe, killing 75 million people. What these people did not know at the time was they had too much garbage in their streets. There was so much it was in piles. These piles of garbage in turn attracted rats. The rats had fleas. The fleas carried the disease. With rats carrying the disease from place to place, the lack of sanitation made it the worst epidemic in human history. (Amsel, 2005 – 2013). Many of the early landfills were made in wetlands. These wetlands were thought to be wasteland at that time. These landfills leaked into lakes and rivers and built up gases, such as methane. As garbage rots, it gives off a flammable gas, called methane. Because of this many garbage dumps would catch fire or explode! The first garbage burning plant was built in 1885 in New York on Governor’s Island. It was called an â€Å"incinerator. † There were 300 incinerators burning garbage in the U. S. by 1914. (Amsel, 2005 – 2013). Leachate – The most serious problem with landfills is groundwater contamination. As water percolates through the ground (like water does in a coffeemaker), chemicals can be released in the ground and get carried along in a process called leaching. The resulting water with the various pollutants is called leachate. As the water percolates through Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), a noxious leachate is generated that consists of residues various decomposing organic matter mixed with various metals from rusting items in the landfills. This can funnel directly into the groundwater without correct precautionary measures. (Wright, 2011). Methane – Municipal Solid Waste is about 2/3 organic material. Because of this, it is subject to natural decomposition. Buried wastes are anaerobic, meaning they decompose without oxygen. A major by-product of this process produces a combination of about 2/3 methane and 1/3 hydrogen and carbon dioxide, called biogas. This is a highly flammable mixture. This has caused homes to explode at up to 1000 feet away and has caused some deaths. Also, gases seeping up to the surface have killed vegetation by poisoning their roots. (Wright, 2011). Incomplete Decomposition – Commonly used plastics resist natural decomposition because of their molecular structure. Microbes are unable to digest them because they are polymers of petroleum-based compounds. There have been biodegradable plastic polymers developed from other sources, such as cornstarch, lactic acid, cellulose, and soybean protein, as well as petroleum. Wright, 2011). Settling – Finally, as waste compacts and decomposes, it settles. This problem was recognized from the beginning and there have been no buildings built on landfills. Settling creates shallow depressions that collect and hold water. These can also be deep holes. This can be addressed by continuous monitoring and filling to restore it to a level surface. (Wright, 2011). Modern Landfill Modern landfills are designed to address the previous mentioned issues. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has upgraded requirements for landfill siting. New landfills are to be sited well above the water table on high ground. The floor is contoured so water drains into a tile leachate collection system. The sides and floor are covered with a plastic liner and at least two feet of compacted soil. This allows any percolating leachate to drain into the leachate collection system and be treated as necessary. Layers of refuse are positioned so the fill is built up in the shape of a pyramid. It is then with at least 18 inches of earthen material and then seeded. This cap and the pyramid shape help the landfill in shedding water. The entire landfill site is surrounded by groundwater monitoring wells and periodically checked. This checking must go on indefinitely. (Wright, 2011). Mariannhill Landfill, South Africa I chose the Mariannhill Landfill, South Africa for innovative practices in making it more productive and reducing its environmental impact. In reading the description of this landfill, it seemed more like a recreation area and less like a landfill. I could tell a lot of thought and planning went into this. This landfill contains several â€Å"cells† to hold waste. Soil from the landfill area is removed and put in storage. The resulting hole is the cell. Once the cell is full the soil is replaced. Vegetation is also removed and placed in a large holding nursery on the site. This is called Plant Rescue Unit or PRUNIT. There is a barrier system in each cell to prevent harmful waste by-products from seeping into the environment. Leachate is treated on site. This is done by a biological primary treatment with sludge followed by a â€Å"polishing treatment† by a reed bed. The Mariannhill site treats landfill water to reduce leachate until the water is reusable. Mariannhill has also set up a landfill gas extraction scheme. It has been operational for four years as of 2008. It also has a bird hide and conservation area with nature trails that link up with existing green space in the metro. (Mariannhill Landfill Conservancy, 2008). This has been a truly eye-opening assignment. Little did I realize as a child that some of the areas I was playing in were so dangerous. I’m not sure if my parents knew, but they always told me to stay away from places like that. I am so thankful these places (older landfills and â€Å"dumps†) are practically figments of the imagination now. We need to take better care of our planet! Let’s all chip in!

Eight Stages In the Development of Man

Aging in the middle ages is certain that life has meaning and it is clear what life really is, it assigned to humans as highly important compare to all living things. The life span on earth is only diminutive interval, as we stay on earth the soul temporary become a prison of the body, the human body experience a short trial and test meant to end death. The important aspect is the life after death of the body, the existence of human being is not focused on what was gained in this material world, what life can offer, but reserves the immortal soul from death and ceaseless death and torture, by gaining endless life and everlasting happiness.In the development of man in a chronological way there are eight stages infancy (0-2years), early childhood (age 2-6), middle childhood (6-12 years), adolescence (12-18 years), early adulthood (18-40), middle adulthood (40-60), the irregular sounding early late adulthood (60-75) and late adulthood (75+).   In childhood development, children develo p rapidly as they are exposed to different attitudes and behaviors. They learn many things formally and informally, these experiences contribute to their emotional, intellectual, physical and social development.Adolescence has traditionally been viewed to begin with puberty, a sudden spurt in physical growth accompanied by sexual maturity. There is a common image of adolescents as unpredictable creatures, prone to mood swing and wild emotional outbursts. This shows that adolescents are more emotionally volatile than adults. In adulthood the individuals grow older they confront new combinations of biological drives and societal demands.By forty years old, most people are all too aware of the changes occurring within their bodies. Strength and vigor in various organ systems decline and changes are readily visible in body shapes and skin as bulges and wrinkles gradually replace gradually replace the sleek torsos and smooth exterior of youth. Sexual activity tends to decrease for both s exes and women in their late forties or early fifties experience pause.Physical changes are inevitable during mid-life, but the magnitude and the rate of such changes are strongly influenced by the the individual lifestyle. Growing evidence suggests that such factors as physical exercise, personal nutrition and effective management of stress may be better predictors of physical vigor and health than age.Comparative research has been made choosing animal models for research in aging, examination of animals is made so that the importance and suitability of particular genus for studies on aging. They use animal model on research for aging because it is a living life form on which a normative natural or behavioral characteristic of aging can be studied. It a semantic confusion when we hear the term research on aging, so we must characterize the areas of scientific analysis on aging.There are two wide categories to do research – the biology of aging or pathology of aging. When we refer to the biology of aging it is commonly based on the origin that aging and are normal processes, a fraction of physiological range in which aging is a step in the progress of the normal life span. Whereas, the pathology of aging is based on the basis that aging is a disease.To define aging more precisely, research should give more focus on genetic inclination from birth to old age, which may require the evaluation of very young  subjects to typify its growth and eventual appearance in the aged. The occurrence of  disease, exposure to environmental pollutants, and infectious agents that affect the elderly  that manifest only at their old age. The most important goals of biomedical and  behavioral research on aging is to develop the worth of life for the aged, to have a direct  development of efficient health concern services for the aged.  Ã‚  There are two kinds of aging, primary aging and secondary aging.Primary aging  refers to changes produced by increasing age . Secondary aging can be traced to changes  resulting from disease, disuse, or abuse of our bodies. It is incorrect to attribute ill health  and discomfort to simply the negative effects of old age. Factors such as lifestyle and  specific illnesses, which are not age related, should be considered as possible causes.Indeed, our physical state during later life is more under our control. Such psychological ideas came from Greek and Roman thought. There is a concealed measurement of ancient philosophy that appeal to a theory divine transcendence ultimately triumphed in form of religion. Both prehistoric and medieval civilizations took for granted that the thoughtful means of life represented the utmost opportunity of human subsistence. This reality is essential to understand the contemporary apprehension of old age, which is a horror of the vacuum, the indeterminate state of apathy.The attitudes that the Greek holds do not necessarily replicate the realism of other  people†™s lives. Even healthier individuals have a pessimistic outlook towards aging thus,  influence the perception of younger people to the ways they choose to interact with the  elderly. There are two conflicting traditions of thought that propose our ideas and  attitudes about aging, the traditional Greek view of aging is very negative, because the  Greeks strained the enormous luck and the great hardship of the old. In their own  view if a person has already conceded his/her youthful years, it is better to die than  experience the indignities of aging.On the other hand the medieval attitudes towards  aging is very positive, since they believe that as a a person grows older, it brings position  and prestige to him and his family and also the community where he lives. This  discrepancy among the contrasting civilization is best seen in the reasons specified for the  death of a young person.In the Middle Eastern view is that the bad man dies young whereas, an old ag e is  a sanction which means when a person dies young he is not blessed, in contrast to ancientGreek which believes that a man who dies at an early age is loved by the Gods and a individual who lives into old age is being punished by the Gods. The attitudes that the Greek holds do not necessarily replicate the realism of other people’s lives. Even healthier individuals have a pessimistic outlook towards aging thus; influence the perception of younger people to the ways they choose to interact with the elderly.There are two conflicting traditions of thought that propose our ideas andattitudes about aging, the traditional Greek view of aging is very negative, because the Greeks strained the enormous luck and the great hardship of the old. In their own  view if a person has already conceded his/her youthful years, it is better to die than  experience the indignities of aging. On the other hand the medieval attitudes towards  aging is very positive, since they believe tha t as a   person grows older, it brings position  and prestige to him and his family and also the community where he lives. This  discrepancy among the contrasting civilization is best seen in the reasons specified for thedeath of a young person.In the Middle Eastern view is that the bad man dies young whereas, an old age is  a sanction which means when a person dies young he is not blessed, in contrast to ancient  Greek which believes that a man who dies at an early age is loved by the Gods and a  individual who lives into old age is being punished by the Gods.Deprived wellbeing in aging requires increased beneficial expenditures that transmit income from other essential areas such as home preservation or the purchase of food. There should be a concerned social or physical environment may retard the rate of functional loss to some degree. Successful planning for an aging society obviously requires attention to the qualitative aspects of aging as well as to the quantitati ve features. Such factors mostly define the value of life at any age and include not only health status but also monetary standing and aspects of both social and substantial environment.There are large numbers of changes in the ways aging people experience in their environments, during the years of adulthood and into old age. These changes engross the course of sensation and perception. We define sensation as the transmission of the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and feel of the internal and outside environments, into terms that the brain can use to interpret these signals. In contrast, the term perception is the procedure that happens in the brain as it integrates these signals with the person’s past comprehension and information coming from the different experiences.The aging process affects both sensation and perception in the tangential and central mechanism of the nervous system. Lots of information is available which are responsible on the aging of the structures for s ensation compare on the aging of upper level brain centers concerned in perception. There are deep effects on adjustment of the many age correlated changes in the understanding of intellect information. In every day existence adults use sensory and perceptual processes, from ordinary routine interaction to difficult problem situations, and even on matters of life and death.Context is a common issue that may strengthen the usual cognitive problems of aging. The associated changes in the brain dopamine has influence how people process background information, which in turn can hurt concentration memory and more. The psychologist have establish the â€Å"absent link† between the aging brain and waning cognitive abilities, there are also studies that shows where the older people and younger people pathways in context processing. The slow lessening of the ability to gain and utilize background clues could clarify why aging people refuse cognition across a range of function. Psychol ogist develops complete, brain based representation of normal aging, that makes them able to eventually slow or stop these worrying cognitive decline.The best example is when psychologist uses dopamine to be used in context   Ã‚  processing which is a kind of psychological â€Å"operating system† that sits among the brain’s prefrontal cortex and cognition; they believe that definite sufficient levels of the chemical messenger dopamine, the prefrontal cortex consistently enables to course for a thought, memory of the actions. Therefore, context processing can have a wide impact, straddling cognitive process once thought to be autonomous. The context processing, has the capability to supersede a defaulting behavior to perform something in a contextually suitable way. To sum it up, in this process helps aging people to decide which way to go to the market, what to utter based on who is listening or what uncertain word would mean in a meticulous sentence.Health promotion has been a functional social science whose theoretical structure has developed from a psychology, anthropology and sociology foundation. Since 1970’s there are already programs given based on the theories of health promotions, usually implemented across large populations. It is also a mixture of health education and related managerial, political, and economic changes conductive to wellbeing. A health promotion program, then, is planned to improve the health and welfare of individuals and communities by giving the people with the information, expertise, services, and sustainability needed to take on and preserve optimistic lifestyle changes.Successful health promotion programs are health enhancement programs; they go further than providing information to effect behavioral alteration. It emphasize has been on physical health condition and health assurance, usual study of insurance price infer that the health promotion program could decrease morbidity from disease.Two types of learning programs for older drivers have been developed, the first one is precautionary driving approach to decrease fears and sharpen driving skills. The next program is for older citizens who had one or other accidents and uses a defensive-driving/traffic school approach to decrease threat of accident. Programs may be offered in a multiplicity of setting such as senior and district centers.The organization of support groups, conducting of meetings of people with meticulous emotional wants share and discuss the crisis the member faces. These groups can be organized by retirement homes, hospitals, senior centers, and community interest society.Reassurance of telephone programs, it is the duty of a fit and self sufficient person to voluntary calls a homebound or apprehensive elder person each day at the same time to check on his protection and well being. Transportation programs, there are vans or minibuses that provide transport for older adults or the handicapped to physicians, hos pital, clinics.Volunteer programs, any sort of organization that operates more efficiently and has increased sense of community importance if an efficient volunteer is developed and equipped. Program developments include advances in public wellbeing, preventive and curative medicine, health education, and medical technology have caused enormous changes in the configuration of the populace of aging populations.ConclusionEveryone of us started from being a child until we reach old age, as we grow older we become unique to other people, each of us has a different genetic make up. During the life course, the range of those persons is created by how person invested time and energy. The life time approach to the learning of aging is one way of conceptualizing many of the factors that influence how individual modify as they grow older, and how different personality show unlike patterns of change in aging.Work CitedCockayne K. (2003). Experiencing Old Age in Ancient Rome. Sociology, Routlid ge Publishing.Decalmer P. and Glandenning F. (1997) The Mistreatment of Elderly People. Sociology. Sage Publication. Sage Newbury Park, CA.Davies, J.K., Gordon M., editor (1998). Quality, Evidence, and Health Effectiveness in Health Promotion. Routledge Publishing.Gilford, D. M. (1988).The Aging Population In The Twenty-First Century. Contributor National Academy of Sciences. National Academic Press.Haber, D. (2007). Health Promotion of Aging; Practical Applications for Health Professionals. Fourth edition. Springer Publishing CompanyTimmreck, T.C. (2003).Planning Program Development and Evaluation. Jones and Barlett Publishers.Timiras, P.S., (2002) Physiological Basis of Aging And Geriatrics. Mac Millan Publishing. New York.Webb, R.C., (1999). Psychology of The Consumer And It’s Development .Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers. New York. Eight Stages In the Development of Man Aging in the middle ages is certain that life has meaning and it is clear what life really is, it assigned to humans as highly important compare to all living things. The life span on earth is only diminutive interval, as we stay on earth the soul temporary become a prison of the body, the human body experience a short trial and test meant to end death.The important aspect is the life after death of the body, the existence of human being is not focused on what was gained in this material world, what life can offer, but reserves the immortal soul from death and ceaseless death and torture, by gaining endless life and everlasting happiness.In the development of man in a chronological way there are eight stages infancy (0-2years), early childhood (age 2-6), middle childhood (6-12 years), adolescence (12-18 years), early adulthood (18-40), middle adulthood (40-60), the irregular sounding early late adulthood (60-75) and late adulthood (75+).   In childhood development, children develop rapidly as they are exposed to different attitudes and behaviors. They learn many things formally and informally, these experiences contribute to their emotional, intellectual, physical and social development.Adolescence has traditionally been viewed to begin with puberty, a sudden spurt in physical growth accompanied by sexual maturity. There is a common image of adolescents as unpredictable creatures, prone to mood swing and wild emotional outbursts. This shows that adolescents are more emotionally volatile than adults. In adulthood the individuals grow older they confront new combinations of biological drives and societal demands.By forty years old, most people are all too aware of the changes occurring within their bodies. Strength and vigor in various organ systems decline and changes are readily visible in body shapes and skin as bulges and wrinkles gradually replace gradually replace the sleek torsos and smooth exterior of youth. Sexual activity tends to decrease for both se xes and women in their late forties or early fifties experience pause.Physical changes are inevitable during mid-life, but the magnitude and the rate of such changes are strongly influenced by the the individual lifestyle. Growing evidence suggests that such factors as physical exercise, personal nutrition and effective management of stress may be better predictors of physical vigor and health than age.Comparative research has been made choosing animal models for research in aging, examination of animals is made so that the importance and suitability of particular genus for studies on aging. They use animal model on research for aging because it is a living life form on which a normative natural or behavioral characteristic of aging can be studied. It a semantic confusion when we hear the term research on aging, so we must characterize the areas of scientific analysis on aging.There are two wide categories to do research – the biology of aging or pathology of aging. When we r efer to the biology of aging it is commonly based on the origin that aging and are normal processes, a fraction of physiological range in which aging is a step in the progress of the normal life span. Whereas, the pathology of aging is based on the basis that aging is a disease.To define aging more precisely, research should give more focus on genetic inclination from birth to old age, which may require the evaluation of very young  subjects to typify its growth and eventual appearance in the aged. The occurrence of  disease, exposure to environmental pollutants, and infectious agents that affect the elderly  that manifest only at their old age. The most important goals of biomedical and  behavioral research on aging is to develop the worth of life for the aged, to have a direct  development of efficient health concern services for the aged.There are two kinds of aging, primary aging and secondary aging. Primary aging  refers to changes produced by increasing age. Second ary aging can be traced to changes  resulting from disease, disuse, or abuse of our bodies. It is incorrect to attribute ill health  and discomfort to simply the negative effects of old age. Factors such as lifestyle and  specific illnesses, which are not age related, should be considered as possible causes.Indeed, our physical state during later life is more under our control. Such psychological ideas came from Greek and Roman thought. There is a concealed measurement of ancient philosophy that appeal to a theory divine transcendence ultimately triumphed in form of religion. Both prehistoric and medieval civilizations took for granted that the thoughtful means of life represented the utmost opportunity of human subsistence. This reality is essential to understand the contemporary apprehension of old age, which is a horror of the vacuum, the indeterminate state of apathy.The attitudes that the Greek holds do not necessarily replicate the realism of other  people’s liv es. Even healthier individuals have a pessimistic outlook towards aging thus,  influence the perception of younger people to the ways they choose to interact with the  elderly. There are two conflicting traditions of thought that propose our ideas and  attitudes about aging, the traditional Greek view of aging is very negative, because the  Greeks strained the enormous luck and the great hardship of the old. In their own  view if a person has already conceded his/her youthful years, it is better to die than  experience the indignities of aging.On the other hand the medieval attitudes towards  aging is very positive, since they believe that as a a person grows older, it brings position  and prestige to him and his family and also the community where he lives. This  discrepancy among the contrasting civilization is best seen in the reasons specified for the  death of a young person.In the Middle Eastern view is that the bad man dies young whereas, an old age is   a sanction which means when a person dies young he is not blessed, in contrast to ancient  Greek which believes that a man who dies at an early age is loved by the Gods and a individual who lives into old age is being punished by the Gods. The attitudes that the Greek holds do not necessarily replicate the realism of other people’s lives. Even healthier individuals have a pessimistic outlook towards aging thus; influence the perception of younger people to the ways they choose to interact with the elderly.There are two conflicting traditions of thought that propose our ideas and  attitudes about aging, the traditional Greek view of aging is very negative, because the Greeks strained the enormous luck and the great hardship of the old. In their own  view if a person has already conceded his/her youthful years, it is better to die than  experience the indignities of aging. On the other hand the medieval attitudes towards  aging is very positive, since they believe tha t as a   person grows older, it brings position  and prestige to him and his family and also the community where he lives. This  discrepancy among the contrasting civilization is best seen in the reasons specified for the  death of a young person.In the Middle Eastern view is that the bad man dies young whereas, an old age is  a sanction which means when a person dies young he is not blessed, in contrast to ancient  Greek which believes that a man who dies at an early age is loved by the Gods and a  individual who lives into old age is being punished by the Gods.Deprived wellbeing in aging requires increased beneficial expenditures that transmit income from other essential areas such as home preservation or the purchase of food. There should be a concerned social or physical environment may retard the rate of functional loss to some degree. Successful planning for an aging society obviously requires attention to the qualitative aspects of aging as well as to the quanti tative features. Such factors mostly define the value of life at any age and include not only health status but also monetary standing and aspects of both social and substantial environment.There are large numbers of changes in the ways aging people experience in their environments, during the years of adulthood and into old age. These changes engross the course of sensation and perception. We define sensation as the transmission of the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and feel of the internal and outside environments, into terms that the brain can use to interpret these signals. In contrast, the term perception is the procedure that happens in the brain as it integrates these signals with the person’s past comprehension and information coming from the different experiences.The aging process affects both sensation and perception in the tangential and central mechanism of the nervous system. Lots of information is available which are responsible on the aging of the structures f or sensation compare on the aging of upper level brain centers concerned in perception. There are deep effects on adjustment of the many age correlated changes in the understanding of intellect information. In every day existence adults use sensory and perceptual processes, from ordinary routine interaction to difficult problem situations, and even on matters of life and death.Context is a common issue that may strengthen the usual cognitive problems of aging. The associated changes in the brain dopamine has influence how people process background information, which in turn can hurt concentration memory and more. The psychologist have establish the â€Å"absent link† between the aging brain and waning cognitive abilities, there are also studies that shows where the older people and younger people pathways in context processing. The slow lessening of the ability to gain and utilize background clues could clarify why aging people refuse cognition across a range of function. Psy chologist develops complete, brain based representation of normal aging, that makes them able to eventually slow or stop these worrying cognitive decline.The best example is when psychologist uses dopamine to be used in context   Ã‚  processing which is a kind of psychological â€Å"operating system† that sits among the brain’s prefrontal cortex and cognition; they believe that definite sufficient levels of the chemical messenger dopamine, the prefrontal cortex consistently enables to course for a thought, memory of the actions. Therefore, context processing can have a wide impact, straddling cognitive process once thought to be autonomous. The context processing, has the capability to supersede a defaulting behavior to perform something in a contextually suitable way. To sum it up, in this process helps aging people to decide which way to go to the market, what to utter based on who is listening or what uncertain word would mean in a meticulous sentence.Health promo tion has been a functional social science whose theoretical structure has developed from a psychology, anthropology and sociology foundation. Since 1970’s there are already programs given based on the theories of health promotions, usually implemented across large populations. It is also a mixture of health education and related managerial, political, and economic changes conductive to wellbeing. A health promotion program, then, is planned to improve the health and welfare of individuals and communities by giving the people with the information, expertise, services, and sustainability needed to take on and preserve optimistic lifestyle changes.Successful health promotion programs are health enhancement programs; they go further than providing information to effect behavioral alteration. It emphasize has been on physical health condition and health assurance, usual study of insurance price infer that the health promotion program could decrease morbidity from disease.Two types of learning programs for older drivers have been developed, the first one is precautionary driving approach to decrease fears and sharpen driving skills. The next program is for older citizens who had one or other accidents and uses a defensive-driving/traffic school approach to decrease threat of accident. Programs may be offered in a multiplicity of setting such as senior and district centers.The organization of support groups, conducting of meetings of people with meticulous emotional wants share and discuss the crisis the member faces. These groups can be organized by retirement homes, hospitals, senior centers, and community interest society.  Reassurance of telephone programs, it is the duty of a fit and self sufficient person to voluntary calls a homebound or apprehensive elder person each day at the same time to check on his protection and well being. Transportation programs, there are vans or minibuses that provide transport for older adults or the handicapped to physici ans, hospital, clinics.Volunteer programs, any sort of organization that operates more efficiently and has increased sense of community importance if an efficient volunteer is developed and equipped. Program developments include advances in public wellbeing, preventive and curative medicine, health education, and medical technology have caused enormous changes in the configuration of the populace of aging populations.ConclusionEveryone of us started from being a child until we reach old age, as we grow older we become unique to other people, each of us has a different genetic make up. During the life course, the range of those persons is created by how person invested time and energy. The life time approach to the learning of aging is one way of conceptualizing many of the factors that influence how individual modify as they grow older, and how different personality show unlike patterns of change in aging.Work CitedCockayne K. (2003). Experiencing Old Age in Ancient Rome. Sociology, Routlidge Publishing.Decalmer P. and Glandenning F. (1997) The Mistreatment of Elderly People. Sociology. Sage Publication. Sage Newbury Park, CA.Davies, J.K., Gordon M., editor (1998). 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